title: Heterokaryons in the analysis of genes and gene regulation.
abstract: Cytological and chemical analysis of heterokaryons, the immediate product of cell fusion, offer new possibilities for studying the factors responsible for genetic regulation in eukaryotic cells. In comparison with proliferating cell hybrids the heterokaryon state offers the important advantage that a heterokaryon contains two complete genomes since chromosome loss does not occur, but since segregation and recombination are absent, heterokaryons cannot be used for gene mapping in the same way as proliferating cell hybrids. However, if two cell types carrying different genetic defects are fused the analysis can be used for studies of gene complementation. The biological information obtained with heterokaryons has emphasized the role of the cytoplasm in the control of nuclear activity. When a G1 nucleus is brought into contact with the cytoplasm of an S phase cell the G1 nucleus is stimulated to synthesize DNA. If the nucleus is brought into a mitotic cell, the chromatin of the G1 nucleus is forced to condense into prematurely condensed chromosomes. Inactive nuclei such as the dormant chick erythrocyte nucleus will be stimulated to initiate RNA and DNA synthesis when brought into contact with an active cytoplasm by cell fusion. Specific nuclear proteins have been shown to be responsible for this process of reactivation. Other inactive nuclei such as the nuclei of macrophages and spermatozoa have likewise been shown to be reactivated by fusion with active cells. The degree of activation in all of these cases appears to be determined by the state of the active cell. Inactive nuclei are activated to the same level as the active nucleus but seldom beyond this level. If differentiated cells are fused with undifferentiated cells, usually the differentiated character is lost rapidly after fusion. This observation is in agreement with several studies on proliferating cell hybrids indicating some type of negative control of differentiated properties. In heterokaryons obtained by fusion of cells of a similar type of histotypic differentiation usually coexpression of the differentiated markers is observed.
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D002459:Cell Fusion; D002467:Cell Nucleus; D002875:Chromosomes; D003588:Cytopathogenic Effect, Viral; D003593:Cytoplasm; D004912:Erythrocytes / Q000166:cytology; D005696:Galactosidases; D005796:Genes; D005809:Genes, Regulator; D005816:Genetic Complementation Test; D005821:Genetic Techniques; D006801:Humans; D006822:Hybrid Cells; D008607:Intellectual Disability / Q000235:genetics; D008938:Mitosis; D009696:Nucleic Acids / Q000096:biosynthesis; D009698:Nucleoproteins; D010222:Parainfluenza Virus 1, Human; D010641:Phenotype; D014983:Xeroderma Pigmentosum / Q000235:genetics
chemical_list: D009696:Nucleic Acids; D009698:Nucleoproteins; D005696:Galactosidases