title: Predictors and consequences of childhood depressive symptoms: a 5-year longitudinal study.
abstract: A 5-year longitudinal study investigated the interrelationships among children's experiences of depressive symptoms, negative life events, explanatory style, and helplessness behaviors in social and achievement situations. The results revealed that early in childhood, negative events, but not explanatory style, predicted depressive symptoms; later in childhood, a pessimistic explanatory style emerged as a significant predictor of depressive symptoms, alone and in conjunction with negative events. When children suffered periods of depression, their explanatory styles not only deteriorated but remained pessimistic even after their depression subsided, presumably putting them at risk for future episodes of depression. Some children seem repeatedly prone to depressive symptoms over periods of at least 2 years. Depressed children consistently showed helpless behaviors in social and achievement settings.
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, Stanford University, California 94305-2130.
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Nolen-Hoeksema
authors.forename: J S
authors.initials: JS
authors.lastname: Girgus
authors.forename: M E
authors.initials: ME
authors.lastname: Seligman
mesh_terms: D000124:Achievement; D002648:Child; D003863:Depression / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000523:psychology*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007389:Internal-External Control; D008137:Longitudinal Studies; D008297:Male; D010552:Personality Assessment; D010553:Personality Development; D012649:Self Concept; D012917:Social Adjustment