title: Comparison of direct bladder and sacral nerve stimulation in spinal cats.
abstract: Neuroprosthetic techniques have been used to facilitate voiding via electrical stimulation for bladder management following spinal cord injury (SCI), but high urethral resistance has been a problem. This problem was investigated here in the chronic, spinal, male cat (C6-T1) using direct bladder and sacral nerve stimulation. Direct bladder stimulation was only conducted during terminal procedures with an open abdomen and with four hook electrodes inserted into the bladder wall. Sacral stimulation was conducted daily during the 10 weeks post-SCI and during terminal procedures. Stimulation was conducted with both implanted epidural electrode and surface electrodes over the sacral bone. Both of these sacral methods stimulated anterior and posterior roots. However, these sacral methods were generally ineffective for inducing voiding during the study. In three of the five animals investigated, stimulation did not empty the bladder. In the remaining two animals, the bladder was emptied with sacral stimulation, but only after return of bladder reflex activity, 2 to 4 weeks post-injury. When poor voiding occurred in spite of high bladder pressures, it indicates high urethral resistance. This was confirmed using video cystourethrography where the membranous urethra was observed to remain closed following stimulation. Direct bladder stimulation was then compared to sacral nerve stimulation during terminal procedures. Direct bladder stimulation induced voiding at a high rate both during and after stimulation, whereas sacral nerve stimulation with implanted electrodes induced voiding at a lower rate and only after stimulation. A simple urethral resistance measure, the ratio of bladder pressure to voiding rate, was lower with direct bladder stimulation than sacral nerve stimulation. Stimulation-facilitated voiding has also been associated with the development of bladder wall hypertrophy. This problem was investigated by evaluating bladder wall thickness postmortem in three groups of animals: the first group was the spinal-stimulated animals detailed above; the additional two groups were a spinal-nonstimulated but instrumented group maintained for 10 weeks following injury, and an intact group of animals. The stimulated spinal cats tended to have the thickest bladder wall followed by the nonstimulated spinal cats. The wall thickness of intact animals served as a control.
authors.affiliation: Hines VA Hospital, Rehabilitation R&D Center, IL 60141.
authors.forename: J S
authors.initials: JS
authors.lastname: Walter
authors.forename: R
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Sidarous
authors.forename: C J
authors.initials: CJ
authors.lastname: Robinson
authors.forename: J S
authors.initials: JS
authors.lastname: Wheeler
authors.forename: R D
authors.initials: RD
authors.lastname: Wurster
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D002415:Cats; D004558:Electric Stimulation / Q000379:methods*; D006984:Hypertrophy; D008297:Male; D011312:Pressure; D011859:Radiography; D012447:Sacrum / Q000294:innervation; D013119:Spinal Cord Injuries / Q000503:physiopathology*; D014521:Urethra / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging / Q000503:physiopathology; D001743:Urinary Bladder / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging / Q000294:innervation / Q000473:pathology; D001750:Urinary Bladder, Neurogenic / Q000503:physiopathology*; D014554:Urination; D014563:Urodynamics