title: Who pays for health care in the United States? Implications for health system reform.
abstract: This paper examines the distribution of health care spending and financing in the United States. We analyze the distribution of employer and employee contributions to health insurance, private nongroup health insurance purchases, out-of-pocket expenses, Medicaid benefits, uncompensated care, tax benefits due to the exemption of employer-paid health benefits, and taxes paid to finance Medicare, Medicaid, and the health benefit tax exclusion. All spending and financing burdens are distributed across the U.S. population using the Urban Institute's TRIM2 microsimulation model. We then examine the distributional effects of the U.S. health care system across income levels, family types, and regions of the country. The results show that health care spending increases with income. Spending for persons in the highest income deciles is about 60% above that of persons in the lowest decile. Nonetheless, the distribution of health care financing is regressive. When direct spending, employer contributions, tax benefits, and tax spending are all considered, the persons in the lowest income deciles devote nearly 20% of cash income to finance health care, compared with about 8% for persons in the highest income decile. We discuss how alternative health system reform approaches are likely to change the distribution of health spending and financing burdens.
authors.affiliation: Health Policy Center, Urban Institute, Washington, DC 20037.
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Holahan
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Zedlewski
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D002648:Child; D003695:Delivery of Health Care / Q000191:economics* / Q000592:standards; D004180:Direct Service Costs / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D005191:Family Characteristics; D005376:Financial Management / Q000379:methods* / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D017048:Health Care Costs / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D006801:Humans; D007182:Income; D015233:Models, Statistical; D013660:Taxes; D014481:United States