title: Proarrhythmic response to sodium channel blockade. Theoretical model and numerical experiments.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The use of flecainide and encainide was terminated in the Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial because of an excess of sudden cardiac deaths in the active treatment group. Such events might arise from reentrant rhythms initiated by premature stimulation in the presence of anisotropic sodium channel availability. Drugs that bind to sodium channels increase the functional dispersion of refractoriness by slowing (a result of the drug-unbinding process) the transition from an inexcitable state to an excitable state. It is interesting that encainide and flecainide unbind slowly (15-20 seconds), whereas lidocaine and moricizine unbind rapidly (0.2-1.3 seconds).
  
  
  RESULTS
  With a computer representation of a cable with Beeler-Reuter membrane properties, we found a small (6 msec) vulnerable window that occurred 338 msec after the last drive stimulus. Premature stimuli falling within the vulnerable window resulted in unidirectional block and reentrant activation. In the presence of a slowly unbinding drug, the window was delayed an additional 341 msec, and its duration was extended to 38 msec. The delay (antiarrhythmic effect) before the onset of the vulnerable window and its duration (proarrhythmic effect) were both dependent on the sodium channel availability and the recovery process. Both effects were also prolonged when sodium channel availability was reduced by membrane depolarization. Defining the proarrhythmic potential as the duration of the vulnerable window, we found that hypothetical use-dependent class I drugs have a greater proarrhythmic potential than non-use-dependent drugs.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The antiarrhythmic and proarrhythmic properties of pure sodium channel antagonists are both dependent on sodium channel availability. Consequently, the price for increased antiarrhythmic efficacy (suppressed premature ventricular contractions) is an increased proarrhythmic vulnerability to unsuppressed premature ventricular contractions.
authors.affiliation: Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, N.C. 27710.
authors.forename: C F
authors.initials: CF
authors.lastname: Starmer
authors.forename: A A
authors.initials: AA
authors.lastname: Lastra
authors.forename: V V
authors.initials: VV
authors.lastname: Nesterenko
authors.forename: A O
authors.initials: AO
authors.lastname: Grant
mesh_terms: D000889:Anti-Arrhythmia Agents / Q000009:adverse effects* / Q000494:pharmacology; D001145:Arrhythmias, Cardiac / Q000139:chemically induced* / Q000503:physiopathology; D003198:Computer Simulation; D006329:Heart Conduction System / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000503:physiopathology; D006801:Humans; D015222:Sodium Channels / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000502:physiology
chemical_list: D000889:Anti-Arrhythmia Agents; D015222:Sodium Channels