title: Musculoskeletal ontogeny, phylogeny, and functional adaptation.
abstract: Physical forces applied to connective tissues may cause significant changes in cell metabolism and gene expression. Theoretical investigations indicate that mechanical loading histories beginning very early in skeletal development may guide endochondral ossification patterns and the initial architectural construction of bones. Developmental patterns and structures of bones can be emulated using mathematical algorithms or "rules of construction" which relate developmental processes to tissue stress (or strain) histories. Skeletal forms and tissues are well-designed for their mechanical function primarily because their histomorphological construction has been guided by mechanical loading during growth and development. Construction rules of developmental mechanics can also be used to describe many of the histological and morphological adaptations of mature skeletal tissues to changes in customary physical activity. Over many generations, changes in the heritable genetic information occurs by mutation and genetic variability. The range of skeletal forms that are possible in evolution due to such variations, however, is constrained by the developmental rules of construction that reflect biophysical processes associated with the tissue mechanical loading.
authors.affiliation: Mechanical Engineering Department, Stanford University, CA 94305.
authors.forename: D R
authors.initials: DR
authors.lastname: Carter
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Wong
authors.forename: T E
authors.initials: TE
authors.lastname: Orr
mesh_terms: D000222:Adaptation, Physiological; D001696:Biomechanical Phenomena; D001842:Bone and Bones / Q000033:anatomy & histology* / Q000502:physiology*; D006801:Humans; D009132:Muscles / Q000033:anatomy & histology* / Q000502:physiology*