Smooth muscle cell growth factors.
While the roles of the platelet-derived growth factors (PDGFs) in vascular smooth muscle cells (SMCs) continue to be elucidated, these cells, especially in their activated 'synthetic' state, have also been found to express, and proliferate in response to, many of the other families of polypeptide growth factors, such as the fibroblast growth factors. Other stimulators of DNA synthesis, and particularly of SMC hypertrophy, include the vasoconstrictor hormones such as angiotensin II, as well as physical forces, especially stretch or tension. For many of these ligands, multiple receptors have been identified and their means of signal transduction are being characterized rapidly. Regulatory regions of these genes are being identified as are transcription factors. Complex post-transcriptional regulation has also been shown by the findings that some growth factors are phosphorylated, or translocated to the nucleus or the extracellular matrix. Inhibitors have also been identified. These include some prostaglandins, calcium antagonists, agonists that activate guanylate and adenylate cyclases, inhibitors of angiotensin-converting enzyme, interferon gamma, and heparin. Future studies are likely to show that tyrosine phosphatases and recessive oncogenes also regulate growth. The existence of so many autocrine/paracrine mitogens--together with some experimental data--suggests some redundancy in the system as well as some additive effects. Redundancy may limit the efficacy of antibodies to a single growth factor to block cell proliferation. Their evolutionary conservation implies some unique roles for each growth factor but these have not been apparent from in vitro studies to date. Further insights are apt to come from the increasing recognition that growth factors have other effects--on cell attachment, migration, survival, production of extracellular matrix, thrombosis, vaso-constriction, regulation of cytokine synthesis, and inhibition of growth. Many of these effects may prove to be context-dependent, as with the case of growth inhibition by transforming growth factor-beta. Studies in monolayer cultures may not obtain the same results as studies using cocultures of endothelial and smooth muscle cells, or 3-dimensional matrix cultures, organ cultures, or in the intact animal. In vivo descriptive studies of growth factors expressed in vascular embryogenesis, hypertension, atherosclerosis, acute balloon injury and thrombosis are being supplemented by interventions such as infusions with growth factors, antibodies, and toxin conjugates. These studies, and studies using transgenic mice and homologous recombination, should yield information as to mechanisms and may also suggest new therapies.
Casscells
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Department of Molecular and Cellular Growth Biology, Whittier Institute for Diabetes and Endocrinology, Scripps Institute of Medicine and Science, La Jolla, CA 92037.
D000818:Animals; D002395:Catecholamines / Q000502:physiology; D002455:Cell Division / Q000502:physiology; D016207:Cytokines / Q000502:physiology; D005109:Extracellular Matrix / Q000502:physiology; D006133:Growth Substances / Q000502:physiology*; D006801:Humans; D008074:Lipoproteins / Q000502:physiology; D051379:Mice; D009132:Muscles / Q000502:physiology*; D013917:Thrombin / Q000502:physiology; D014665:Vasodilator Agents / Q000494:pharmacology
D002395:Catecholamines; D016207:Cytokines; D006133:Growth Substances; D008074:Lipoproteins; D014665:Vasodilator Agents; D013917:Thrombin