title: Dyspnea: a case for nursing diagnosis status.
abstract: Dyspnea, the unpleasant subjective sensation of difficult breathing, is one of the most common symptoms experienced by patients with pulmonary and cardiac disorders. This article reviews the research concerning dyspnea and proposes it for consideration as a nursing diagnosis. The etiologies are categorized according to the neurosensory, neurochemical, cognitive, and affective mechanisms. The defining characteristics include the subjective words describing dyspnea, such as shortness of breath, suffocation, and tightness. The most supported objective sign of dyspnea in the literature is an increased use of accessory muscles of respiration. Nursing interventions for dyspnea relief are geared toward reducing the afferent activity from receptors in the respiratory muscles and dealing with the affective component of dyspnea. These interventions include pacing activities, breathing techniques, and inducing the relaxation response. Because most research for interventions to reduce dyspnea have focused on patients with obstructive lung disorders who have chronic dyspnea, recommendations for further research include using acutely ill patients and those with a variety of medical conditions.
authors.forename: A G
authors.initials: AG
authors.lastname: Gift
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Nield
mesh_terms: D004417:Dyspnea / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000209:etiology / Q000451:nursing*; D006801:Humans; D009733:Nursing Diagnosis / Q000145:classification / Q000592:standards*; D015403:Nursing Evaluation Research