title: Chronic renal failure in sickle cell disease: risk factors, clinical course, and mortality.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To determine the incidence, clinical course, and risk factors associated with the onset of chronic renal failure in sickle cell anemia and sickle C disease.
  
  
  METHODS
  A prospective, 25-year longitudinal demographic and clinical cohort study. A matched case-control study was conducted to determine risk factors.
  
  
  METHODS
  A total of 725 patients with sickle cell anemia and 209 patients with sickle C disease who received medical care from the hematology service in a large municipal hospital. Most were observed from birth or early childhood.
  
  
  METHODS
  Thirty-six patients developed sickle renal failure: 4.2% of patients with sickle cell anemia and 2.4% of patients with sickle C disease. The median age of disease onset for these patients was 23.1 and 49.9 years, respectively. Survival time for patients with sickle cell anemia after the diagnosis of sickle renal failure, despite dialysis, was 4 years, and the median age at the time of death was 27 years. Relative risk for mortality was 1.42 (95% Cl, 1.12 to 1.81; P = 0.02) compared with patients who did not develop renal insufficiency.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Histopathologic studies showed characteristic lesions of glomerular "drop out" and glomerulosclerosis. Case-control analysis showed that ineffective erythropoiesis with increasingly severe anemia, hypertension, proteinuria, the nephrotic syndrome, and microscopic hematuria were significant pre-azotemic predictors of chronic renal failure. The risk for sickle renal failure was increased in patients who had inherited the Central African Republic beta s-gene cluster haplotype.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The pre-azotemic manifestations of hypertension, proteinuria, and increasingly severe anemia predict end-stage renal failure in patients with sickle cell disease. The rate of progression of renal insufficiency is genetically determined. Treatment of the uremic phase has been dismal, underscoring the need for the development of useful pre-azotemic therapeutic modalities.
authors.affiliation: University of Southern California School of Medicine, Los Angeles.
authors.forename: D R
authors.initials: DR
authors.lastname: Powars
authors.forename: D D
authors.initials: DD
authors.lastname: Elliott-Mills
authors.forename: L
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Chan
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Niland
authors.forename: A L
authors.initials: AL
authors.lastname: Hiti
authors.forename: L M
authors.initials: LM
authors.lastname: Opas
authors.forename: C
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Johnson
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000367:Age Factors; D000368:Aged; D000755:Anemia, Sickle Cell / Q000150:complications* / Q000235:genetics / Q000401:mortality; D016022:Case-Control Studies; D005260:Female; D006450:Hemoglobin SC Disease / Q000150:complications* / Q000235:genetics / Q000401:mortality; D006801:Humans; D007676:Kidney Failure, Chronic / Q000209:etiology* / Q000401:mortality / Q000503:physiopathology; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D011446:Prospective Studies; D012307:Risk Factors; D015996:Survival Rate