title: Genetic and environmental determinants of hypopus duration in the stored-product mite Lepidoglyphus destructor.
abstract: This paper reports a series of experiments over many years on hypopus duration and extends the preceding investigation (1987) on hypopus formation in Lepidoglyphus destructor (Schrank, 1781). The length of time required for hypopus physiogenesis (diapause development) is genetically programmed but influenced by environmental factors. This span of time is highly variable, and may extend from one week to more than a year. Spreading out the potential for hypopus completion over time is adaptive, since a pool of hypopodes with prolonged and staggered dormancies serves to spread the risk of emergence of tritonymphs over extended periods of time; it buffers the population against sudden drought to which all other stages of the life-cycle succumb. The additive structure and large variance of the genetic system underlying the length of time required for hypopus physiogenesis allows for the reconstitution of a broad spectrum of genotypes in every generation through the process of meiotic segregation and recombination during sexual reproduction. It favours stored variability, provides a 'fail-safe device' both for survival as well as development in irregularly fluctuating environments, and facilitates the adaptation of populations to local conditions. The trait for hypopus physiogenesis varies independently from that of hypopus formation, and is apparently free to adjust, without genetic constraints, towards an adaptive optimum. The response to selection is fast. Low environmental humidities and high temperatures accelerate physiogenesis of the hypopus. Completion of the hypopus stage and moulting to the tritonymph is triggered by high humidities at moderate temperatures. If environmental conditions preclude moulting, the hypopus following ending of physiogenesis enters a state of quiescence. In contrast the seasonal and largely predictably varying environments, in which essentially anticipatory and season-related token cues like photoperiod regulate the timing of so many arthropod life-cycles, L. destructor copes with sudden and fatal drought, as well as with unheralded and favourable humidities in its ephemeral habitats, mainly by excessive genetic polymorphism in hypopus duration and formation; some genotypes are always instantaneously fit to meet the respective environmental situation. The mite faces gradual food deterioration of its patchily distributed microhabitats by a short-term anticipatory and environmentally cued developmental switch mechanism, which lowers the threshold for hypopus induction. On top of genetic variability and phenotypic plasticity, any genotype X environment interaction provides for increasing flexibility above that from genetic polymorphism and environmental polyphenism alone. This extraordinary measure of adaptedness fits L. destructor for life in irregularly fluctuating environments.
authors.affiliation: Institut für Angewandte Zoologie, Freie Universität Berlin, Germany.
authors.forename: W
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: Knülle
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001947:Breeding; D003433:Crosses, Genetic; D005506:Food Contamination; D005519:Food Preservation; D006813:Humidity; D008925:Mites / Q000235:genetics / Q000254:growth & development*; D013696:Temperature