title: Polymerase chain reaction-aided genomic sequencing of an X chromosome-linked CpG island: methylation patterns suggest clonal inheritance, CpG site autonomy, and an explanation of activity state stability.
abstract: The 5' region of the gene encoding human X chromosome-linked phosphoglycerate kinase 1 (PGK1) is a promoter-containing CpG island known to be methylated at 119 of 121 CpG dinucleotides in a 450-base-pair region on the inactive human X chromosome in the hamster-human cell line X8-6T2. Here we report the use of polymerase chain reaction-aided genomic sequencing to determine the complete methylation pattern of this region in clones derived from X8-6T2 cells after treatment with the methylation inhibitor 5-azacytidine. We find (i) a clone showing full expression of human phosphoglycerate kinase is fully unmethylated in this region; (ii) clones not expressing human phosphoglycerate kinase remain methylated at approximately 50% of CpG sites, with a pattern of interspersed methylated (M) and unmethylated (U) sites different for each clone; (iii) singles, defined as M-U-M or U-M-U, are common; and (iv) a few CpG sites are partially methylated. The data are interpreted according to a model of multiple, autonomous CpG sites, and estimates are made for two key parameters, maintenance efficiency (Em approximately 99.9% per site per generation) and de novo methylation efficiency (Ed approximately 5%). These parameter values and the hypothesis that several independent sites must be unmethylated for transcription can explain the stable maintenance of X chromosome inactivation. We also consider how the active region is kept free of methylation and suggest that transcription inhibits methylation by decreasing Em so that methylation cannot be maintained. Thus, multiple CpG sites, independent with respect to a dynamic methylation system, can stabilize two alternative states of methylation and transcription.
authors.affiliation: Molecular Biology Section, Beckman Research Institute of the City of Hope, Duarte, CA 91010.
authors.forename: G P
authors.initials: GP
authors.lastname: Pfeifer
authors.forename: S D
authors.initials: SD
authors.lastname: Steigerwald
authors.forename: R S
authors.initials: RS
authors.lastname: Hansen
authors.forename: S M
authors.initials: SM
authors.lastname: Gartler
authors.forename: A D
authors.initials: AD
authors.lastname: Riggs
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001483:Base Sequence; D002460:Cell Line; D002999:Clone Cells; D006224:Cricetinae; D015226:Dinucleoside Phosphates / Q000235:genetics*; D006801:Humans; D006822:Hybrid Cells / Q000201:enzymology; D008745:Methylation; D008969:Molecular Sequence Data; D010735:Phosphoglycerate Kinase / Q000235:genetics*; D016133:Polymerase Chain Reaction / Q000379:methods; D014960:X Chromosome
chemical_list: D015226:Dinucleoside Phosphates; D010735:Phosphoglycerate Kinase; C015772:CpG dinucleotide