title: Ammonia-oxidizing bacteria in a chloraminated distribution system: seasonal occurrence, distribution and disinfection resistance.
abstract: Nitrification in chloraminated drinking water can have a number of adverse effects on water quality, including a loss of total chlorine and ammonia-N and an increase in the concentration of heterotrophic plate count bacteria and nitrite. To understand how nitrification develops, a study was conducted to examine the factors that influence the occurrence of ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB) in a chloraminated distribution system. Samples were collected over an 18-month period from a raw-water source, a conventional treatment plant effluent, and two covered, finished-water reservoirs that previously experienced nitrification episodes. Sediment and biofilm samples were collected from the interior wall surfaces of two finished-water pipelines and one of the covered reservoirs. The AOB were enumerated by a most-probable-number technique, and isolates were isolated and identified. The resistance of naturally occurring AOB to chloramines and free chlorine was also examined. The results of the monitoring program indicated that the levels of AOB, identified as members of the genus Nitrosomonas, were seasonally dependent in both source and finished waters, with the highest levels observed in the warm summer months. The concentrations of AOB in the two reservoirs, both of which have floating covers made of synthetic rubber (Hypalon; E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Co., Inc., Wilmington, Del.), had most probable numbers that ranged from less than 0.2 to greater than 300/ml and correlated significantly with temperature and levels of heterotrophic plate count bacteria. No AOB were detected in the chloraminated reservoirs when the water temperature was below 16 to 18 degrees C. The study indicated that nitrifiers occur throughout the chloraminated distribution system. Higher concentrations of AOB were found in the reservoir and pipe sediment materials than in the pipe biofilm samples. The AOB were approximately 13 times more resistant to monochloramine than to free chlorine. After 33 min of exposure to 1.0 mg of monochloramine per liter (pH 8.2, 23 degrees C), 99% of an AOB culture was inactivated. The amounts of this disinfectant that are currently used (1.5 mg/liter at a 3:1 ratio of chlorine to ammonia-N) may be inadequate to control the growth of these organisms in the distribution system.
authors.affiliation: Metropolitan Water District of Southern California, La Verne 91750.
authors.forename: R L
authors.initials: RL
authors.lastname: Wolfe
authors.forename: N I
authors.initials: NI
authors.lastname: Lieu
authors.forename: G
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Izaguirre
authors.forename: E G
authors.initials: EG
authors.lastname: Means
mesh_terms: D000641:Ammonia / Q000378:metabolism*; D001419:Bacteria / Q000254:growth & development / Q000378:metabolism* / Q000648:ultrastructure; D002700:Chloramines / Q000494:pharmacology*; D002713:Chlorine / Q000494:pharmacology; D015169:Colony Count, Microbial; D004352:Drug Resistance, Microbial; D008854:Microscopy, Electron; D010084:Oxidation-Reduction; D012621:Seasons; D013696:Temperature; D014871:Water Microbiology; D014881:Water Supply / Q000592:standards*
chemical_list: D002700:Chloramines; D002713:Chlorine; D000641:Ammonia