title: Mathematical models of gene amplification with applications to cellular drug resistance and tumorigenicity.
abstract: An increased number of copies of specific genes may offer an advantage to cells when they grow in restrictive conditions such as in the presence of toxic drugs, or in a tumor. Three mathematical models of gene amplification and deamplification are proposed to describe the kinetics of unstable phenotypes of cells with amplified genes. The models differ in details but all assume probabilistic mechanisms of increase and decrease in gene copy number per cell (gene amplification/deamplification). Analysis of the models indicates that a stable distribution of numbers of copies of genes per cell, observed experimentally, exists only if the probability of deamplification exceeds the probability of amplification. The models are fitted to published data on the loss of methotrexate resistance in cultured cell lines, due to the loss of amplified dihydrofolate reductase gene. For two mouse cell lines unstably resistant to methotrexate the probabilities of amplification and deamplification of the dihydrofolate reductase gene on double minute chromosomes are estimated to be approximately 2% and 10%, respectively. These probabilities are much higher than widely presumed. The models explain the gradual disappearance of the resistant phenotype when selective pressure is withdrawn, by postulating that the rate of deamplification exceeds the rate of amplification. Thus it is not necessary to invoke a growth advantage of nonresistant cells which has been the standard explanation. For another analogous process, the loss of double minute chromosomes containing the myc oncogene from SEWA tumor cells, the growth advantage model does seem to be superior to the amplification and deamplification model. In a more theoretical section of the paper, it is demonstrated that gene amplification/deamplification can result in reduction to homozygosity, such as is observed in some tumors. Other applications are discussed.
authors.affiliation: Investigative Cytology Laboratory, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York 10021.
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Kimmel
authors.forename: D E
authors.initials: DE
authors.lastname: Axelrod
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D015197:Carcinogenicity Tests; D002455:Cell Division; D002460:Cell Line; D004351:Drug Resistance / Q000235:genetics; D005784:Gene Amplification; D005796:Genes; D007700:Kinetics; D008433:Mathematics; D008727:Methotrexate / Q000494:pharmacology*; D051379:Mice; D008957:Models, Genetic; D009857:Oncogenes; D010641:Phenotype; D011336:Probability; D013762:Tetrahydrofolate Dehydrogenase / Q000235:genetics*
chemical_list: D013762:Tetrahydrofolate Dehydrogenase; D008727:Methotrexate