title: The heart is the center of a new endocrine, paracrine, and neuroendocrine system.
abstract: This review indicates that the heart is a polypeptide-producing organ which should be classified among the traditional endocrine tissues. Cardiac hormones have only been known for a few years, the discovery of their endocrine functions, however, occurred in the 1950ies when Gauer, Henry and Kisch observed specific physiological and morphological features of the heart atria indicative of an endocrine activity. Because of their basic effects many target organs involved in the regulation of body fluid pressure and composition are related to this endocrine organ located in the atrial appendages of the heart. The compact endocrine portion of the heart is built up by myoendocrine cells which form the functional endocrine units and produce a variety of polypeptide hormones called cardiodilatin (CDD) or atrial natriuretic polypeptide (ANP), which belong to one family. Also, co-storage of a partially homologous regulatory polypeptide called brain natriuretic polypeptide (BNP) occurs, as has been determined by immunohistochemistry and radioimmunoassay. CDD and/or BNP are found in numerous organs where they exert paracrine and neurocrine functions, e.g., in the brain, peripheral nervous system, kidney, and adrenal medulla. In these organs, a differential post-translational processing of cardiac polypeptides is observed, resulting in different functional activities according to discriminating receptor interactions and degrading metabolism. Some of the extra-auricular sites of synthesis and storage of CDD-like peptides are briefly mentioned. In summary the heart constitutes the center of a multilocal and multifunctional system of specific cardiac polypeptides of endocrine, paraneuronal, and neuronal character.
authors.affiliation: Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Heidelberg, Federal Republic of Germany.
authors.forename: W G
authors.initials: WG
authors.lastname: Forssmann
authors.forename: K
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Nokihara
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Gagelmann
authors.forename: D
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Hock
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Feller
authors.forename: P
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Schulz-Knappe
authors.forename: F
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Herbst
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D009320:Atrial Natriuretic Factor / Q000378:metabolism / Q000502:physiology*; D004702:Endocrine Glands / Q000166:cytology / Q000187:drug effects / Q000502:physiology*; D006321:Heart / Q000502:physiology*; D006801:Humans; D009124:Muscle Proteins / Q000378:metabolism / Q000502:physiology*; D009206:Myocardium / Q000166:cytology / Q000378:metabolism; D009490:Neurosecretory Systems / Q000166:cytology / Q000187:drug effects / Q000502:physiology*
chemical_list: D009124:Muscle Proteins; D009320:Atrial Natriuretic Factor; C040651:cardiodilatin