Pain and pain control in children.
Focused research on pain and pain control in children has developed primarily in the last 10 years and even now is woefully inadequate in relation to the magnitude of the problem. The available research, inferences from the adult literature, and anecdotal information all indicate the elusive nature of pain. Pain is not solely a fixed neurophysiologic response to a noxious stimulus but a product of the interaction of many variables such as age, cognitive set, personality, ethnic background, and emotional state. These factors exert a tremendous influence on the suffering which surrounds the pain message. Technology exists at present to eliminate or substantially reduce pain in almost all cases. There remains, however, a tendency, which is even more pronounced with respect to children, to underestimate or ignore pain. In an overall approach to pain in children, the following points should be considered: A high index of suspicion is necessary to determine if children are experiencing pain since they may have difficulty verbalizing their discomfort. In infants, physiologic variables should be considered (increased heart rate, palmar sweating, increased respiratory rate), and in preschoolers, time should be taken to ascertain that the child actually understands the word "pain" if it is used in questioning them. Some method of continuous monitoring, such as a visual analogue scan, should be considered as part of the treatment plan. Adequate analgesia should be provided. The appropriate dose should be administered at the appropriate pharmacokinetic time. Too little medication may cause obsessive attention to medication-related issues. Too much medication may cause sedation and lack of mental clarity, which is often anxiety-producing for both the parents and the child. The usefulness of p.r.n. medication has been seriously questioned and a time-contingent as opposed to pain-contingent strategy should be applied. Fears of addiction are generally unwarranted. Adjunctive medication may increase the value of offered narcotics and counteract some of their side effects. Although this monograph has focused more attention on pharmacologic than on nonpharmacologic approaches to pain, this is merely a reflection of available data and not necessarily of relative importance. The importance of distraction from pain by nursing, medical, or child life personnel using play techniques cannot be overestimated. Every attempt should be made to relax the child by using creative strategies. Preparation of the child for procedures is often helpful as some of the fear of the unknown is eliminated.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)
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D000277:Adjuvants, Pharmaceutic / Q000627:therapeutic use; D000367:Age Factors; D000700:Analgesics / Q000627:therapeutic use; D000701:Analgesics, Opioid / Q000627:therapeutic use; D000755:Anemia, Sickle Cell / Q000150:complications; D001007:Anxiety; D002056:Burns / Q000150:complications; D002648:Child; D003466:Cultural Characteristics; D004338:Drug Combinations; D004361:Drug Tolerance; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D006990:Hypnosis; D008297:Male; D009369:Neoplasms / Q000150:complications; D009407:Nerve Block; D009619:Nociceptors / Q000503:physiopathology; D010146:Pain / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000517:prevention & control / Q000523:psychology; D059408:Pain Management; D010149:Postoperative Pain / Q000628:therapy; D010551:Personality; D012008:Recurrence; D012064:Relaxation Therapy; D012684:Sensory Thresholds; D019966:Substance-Related Disorders; D009435:Synaptic Transmission; D004561:Transcutaneous Electric Nerve Stimulation; D014947:Wounds and Injuries / Q000150:complications
D000277:Adjuvants, Pharmaceutic; D000700:Analgesics; D000701:Analgesics, Opioid; D004338:Drug Combinations