title: Controversies in neonatal nutrition.
abstract: The assessment of growth parameters remains one of the most practical and valuable tools to estimate nutritional status in neonates. Growth assessment in full-term infants is performed by using charts developed by the National Center for Health and Statistics. The assessment of post-natal growth in premature infants is controversial and can be performed by using either intrauterine or extrauterine standards. The selection of appropriate growth charts should be based on clinical, demographic, ethnic, and socioeconomic similarities of the population used for reference. Daily energy intakes ranging from 100 to 120 kcal/kg/day have been recommended for full-term infants, while higher intakes ranging from 114 to 181 kcal/kg/day have been recommended for premature neonates. Full-term infants should be nursed or nipple fed on demand; however, premature infants should ideally be tube fed by intermittent gastric feeding (gavage). Continuous gastric and transpyloric feedings are indicated in selected infants. Human milk is a preferred food for full-term infants during the first six months of life; however, this precept does not suggest that all infants who are exclusively breast-fed will grow adequately. Preterm human milk is also a preferred food for the low birthweight infant, provided nutritional supplements are used. It is unclear whether the supplementation of vitamin D, iron, and fluoride in full-term breast-fed infants should be started at birth, at the time of initiation of solid foods, or at the age of six months. The routine supplementation of multivitamins, folic acid, and vitamin E to all low birthweight infants is controversial. Most investigators suggest vitamin supplementation be given until the intake of formula or breast milk is sufficient to meet daily requirements. Vitamin E appears to exert a protective effect in premature infants against the development of severe retinopathy. The supplementation of vitamin E should be dependent upon the serum vitamin E concentration. It is controversial whether iron supplementation for premature infants should be initiated soon after birth or at two months of age, or whether higher doses of iron should be given to very low birthweight infants. If iron supplementation is started at birth, vitamin E status should be closely monitored. Although the optimal intakes of calcium and phosphorus in infant feedings have not been firmly established, the levels of calcium and phosphorus in human milk appear to be inadequate for the growing low birthweight infant.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)
authors.forename: G R
authors.initials: GR
authors.lastname: Pereira
authors.forename: N M
authors.initials: NM
authors.lastname: Barbosa
mesh_terms: D001835:Body Weight; D002118:Calcium / Q000627:therapeutic use; D005314:Embryonic and Fetal Development; D002149:Energy Intake; D004734:Energy Metabolism; D004750:Enteral Nutrition; D005260:Female; D006128:Growth; D006801:Humans; D007223:Infant; D007224:Infant Care; D007225:Infant Food; D007227:Infant Nutritional Physiological Phenomena; D007231:Infant, Newborn; D007234:Infant, Premature; D007501:Iron / Q000627:therapeutic use; D008895:Milk, Human; D009751:Nutritional Requirements; D010758:Phosphorus / Q000627:therapeutic use; D011247:Pregnancy; D014815:Vitamins / Q000627:therapeutic use
chemical_list: D014815:Vitamins; D010758:Phosphorus; D007501:Iron; D002118:Calcium