title: "Proof" of cause and effect in epidemiologic studies: criteria for judgment.
abstract: A review of epidemiologic criteria for judging cause and effect emphasizes their empirical basis and points to their limitations for establishing "scientific proof." The criteria are applied to a controversy concerning a putative detrimental effect of spermicides on spontaneous abortion and congenital malformations. The criteria indicate a lack of firm evidence for the contention that spermicides have an adverse effect on pregnancy outcome.
mesh_terms: D000014:Abnormalities, Drug-Induced; D000022:Abortion, Spontaneous / Q000139:chemically induced; D004812:Epidemiologic Methods; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007600:Judgment; D011247:Pregnancy; D011336:Probability; D012107:Research Design; D013089:Spermatocidal Agents / Q000009:adverse effects
chemical_list: D013089:Spermatocidal Agents