title: N.m.r. imaging of intact biological systems.
abstract: Internal images of structured objects may be obtained with n.m.r. by labelling component parts with different magnetic field strengths and therefore  recognizably different n.m.r. frequencies. A linear field gradient generates a one-dimensional projection of nuclear density and a variety of techniques are employed to manipulate this one-dimensional probe to yield internal images in two and three dimensions. In the past few years, n.m.r. imaging, sometimes also called zeugmatography or spin mapping, has been applied progressively to provide proton images of small phantoms, fruit, vegetables and small animals, and finally to in vivo imaging of the human body; it promises to provide a valuable means of interior investigation of intact biological systems generally. For medical imaging the method is non-invasive, does not use ionizing radiations, appears to be without hazard and penetrates bony cavities without attenuation. Furthermore, other n.m.r. parameters, for example, relaxation times and fluid flow, may also be mapped; there is evidence that the relaxation times from tumours are significantly longer than those from corresponding normal tissue. Effort to date has mostly been concentrated on proton n.m.r., but some work has been done with other nuclei. Three examples are shown of n.m.r. images of intact biological systems: a fruit, an animal and a human system. The discussion includes the quantitative nature of the images, tissue discrimination, the relation between the resolution in the image and image acquisition time, attenuation and phase shift of the r.f. field in the biological tissue, and magnets suitable for n.m.r. imaging. In principle, all conventional n.m.r. techniques can be combined with n.m.r. methods in order to investigate heterogeneous systems. Overhauser imaging is briefly discussed.
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D006801:Humans; D009682:Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy / Q000379:methods*; D011817:Rabbits; D014054:Tomography / Q000295:instrumentation*