title: Low voltage scanning electron microscopy.
abstract: The scanning electron microscope (SEM) is usually operated with a beam voltage, V0, in the range of 10-30 kV, even though many early workers had suggested the use of lower voltages to increase topographic contrast and to reduce specimen charging and beam damage. The chief reason for this contradiction is poor instrumental performance when V0 = 1-3 kV, The problems include low source brightness, greater defocusing due to chromatic aberration greater sensitivity to stray fields, and difficulty in collecting the secondary electron signal. Responding to the needs of the semiconductor industry, which uses low V0 to reduce beam damage, considerable efforts have been made to overcome these problems. The resulting equipment has greatly improved performance at low kV and substantially removes the practical deterrents to operation in this mode. This paper reviews the advantages of low voltage operation, recent progress in instrumentation and describes a prototype instrument designed and built for optimum performance at 1 kV. Other limitations to high resolution topographic imaging such as surface contamination, the de-localized nature of the inelastic scattering event and radiation damage are also discussed.
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001517:Coleoptera; D004560:Electricity; D005069:Evaluation Studies as Topic; D008855:Microscopy, Electron, Scanning / Q000295:instrumentation