title: The evolutionary emergence and refinement of the mammalian pattern of foot architecture.
abstract: It is shown that in form and function the articular complexes of the monotreme foot are pre-adaptive to the therian condition, but the echidna differs by having a tuber calcaneus which is directed downward and distally. The cynodont foot (TR. 8) and that of the Triassic mammal Eozostrodon seem to possess the essential articular features present in monotremes, but they are assembled rather differently. In both, tuber calcaneus was apparently directed downwards. It follows that monotremes were probably derived from some way along the lineage usually, but inappropriately, termed "Theria'. A calcaneofibular articulation is present in kangaroos, certain shrews, elephant shrews, rabbits and artiodactyls. In all of them it is an apomorphic condition involving annexation of part of the posterior talar facet on the calcaneus by the fibula, which invariably shows some degree of amalgamation with the tibia. It is shown that the trochlear process of the mammalian calcaneus has the dual function of providing origin for the m. flexor accessorius and acting as a supporting shelf for the bundle of peroneal tendons. It is almost certainly a derivative of the lateral flange on the cynodont calcaneus, which presumably had a comparable function. In man, the process is fragmented, one of its derivatives being the lateral process of the calcaneal tuber which shows varying degrees of migration towards the medial process and amalgamation with it. The importance of these morphological features is discussed in relation to their use in cladistic analysis and their relevance to theories of the early evolution of the mammals.
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D005075:Biological Evolution; D002111:Calcaneus / Q000033:anatomy & histology; D005528:Foot / Q000033:anatomy & histology*; D006614:Hindlimb / Q000033:anatomy & histology; D006801:Humans; D007596:Joints / Q000033:anatomy & histology; D008322:Mammals / Q000033:anatomy & histology*; D009007:Monotremata / Q000033:anatomy & histology; D010802:Phylogeny; D012104:Reptiles / Q000033:anatomy & histology; D013643:Tarsus, Animal / Q000033:anatomy & histology