title: Macronutrient intake, eating habits, and exercise as moderators of menstrual distress in healthy women.
abstract: The present investigation studied the relationship between symptoms of menstrual distress and macronutrient intake, eating behavior, and exercise in healthy women. Twenty-six normally menstruating women with no complaints of menstrual distress completed a disguised questionnaire on menstrual symptoms and monitored the type and amount of food consumed as well as the type and duration of exercise during a full menstrual cycle. Menstrual cycle phases were determined by the presence of menses, ovarian hormonal assays, and basal temperature monitoring. Reports of pain, water retention, negative affect, behavior change, and arousal were significantly higher (p < .05 or better) in the perimenstruum when compared to the follicular and luteal phases. During the perimenstruum, a higher energy intake of carbohydrate was associated with higher ratings of negative affect (p < .01) and impaired performance/decreased activity (p < .05). Lower energy intake of protein was associated with higher ratings of well being (p < .05). Overeating and dieting behavior were related to greater water retention (p < .01), autonomic reactions (p < .05), and appetite (p < .05). The amount of aerobic exercise in contrast to the intensity was related to lower water retention (p < .01), autonomic reactions (p < .05), and appetite (p < .01). Carbohydrate consumption, eating behavior, and regular exercise are reliably associated with menstrual distress and deserving of experimental evaluation as treatment interventions for menstrual distress.
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D001066:Appetite / Q000502:physiology; D001143:Arousal / Q000502:physiology; D001341:Autonomic Nervous System / Q000503:physiopathology; D015930:Diet Records; D004040:Dietary Carbohydrates / Q000008:administration & dosage; D004044:Dietary Proteins / Q000008:administration & dosage; D002149:Energy Intake / Q000502:physiology; D004967:Estrogens / Q000097:blood; D015444:Exercise / Q000502:physiology / Q000523:psychology*; D005247:Feeding Behavior / Q000523:psychology*; D005260:Female; D005640:Follicle Stimulating Hormone / Q000097:blood; D006801:Humans; D007986:Luteinizing Hormone / Q000097:blood; D011293:Premenstrual Syndrome / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000523:psychology*; D011374:Progesterone / Q000097:blood; D014882:Water-Electrolyte Balance / Q000502:physiology
chemical_list: D004040:Dietary Carbohydrates; D004044:Dietary Proteins; D004967:Estrogens; D011374:Progesterone; D007986:Luteinizing Hormone; D005640:Follicle Stimulating Hormone