title: Tumor heterogeneity and immunotherapy of cancer.
abstract: Tumor heterogeneity is the presence of intercellular differences, either from clonal origin or present within subpopulations of tumor cells. Recent advances in immuno-histology, flow cytometric analysis, molecular biological techniques, and tissue culture methods makes it possible to investigate tumor heterogeneity in detail. In this review data are presented to document that this hallmark of neoplastic disease results from DNA-instability and the interactions of tumor cells with their environment. The present inability to treat most patients effectively with immunotherapy may partly be due to the occurrence of tumor heterogeneity. Therefore, the heterogeneity of the tumor phenotype is discussed in conjunction with the various immunotherapeutic treatment modalities. In addition to local cytokine production by immune cells and tumor cells, and limited access of either antibodies or immune cells into the tumor, tumor heterogeneity is an important factor that determines the progress of immunotherapy of cancer. Therefore, accurate quantitative methods using antibodies and molecular probes to identify HLA-associated target peptides, tumor-associated antigens and accessory molecules, to predict which patients will have a high probability of responding to treatment, are needed.
authors.affiliation: Department of Pathology, University of Leiden, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: G J
authors.initials: GJ
authors.lastname: Fleuren
authors.forename: A
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Gorter
authors.forename: P J
authors.initials: PJ
authors.lastname: Kuppen
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Litvinov
authors.forename: S O
authors.initials: SO
authors.lastname: Warnaar
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D006801:Humans; D016233:Immunotherapy, Active; D009369:Neoplasms / Q000235:genetics / Q000473:pathology / Q000628:therapy; D009374:Neoplasms, Experimental / Q000235:genetics / Q000473:pathology / Q000628:therapy