title: Mortality in relation to smoking: 40 years' observations on male British doctors.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To assess the hazards associated with long term use of tobacco.
  
  
  METHODS
  Prospective study of mortality in relation to smoking habits assessed in 1951 and again from time to time thereafter, with causes sought of deaths over 40 years (to 1991). Continuation of a study that was last reported after 20 years' follow up (1951-71).
  
  
  METHODS
  34,439 British male doctors who replied to a postal questionnaire in 1951, of whom 10,000 had died during the first 20 years and another 10,000 have died during the second 20 years.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Excess mortality associated with smoking was about twice as extreme during the second half of the study as it had been during the first half. The death rate ratios during 1971-91 (comparing continuing cigarette smokers with life-long non-smokers) were approximately threefold at ages 45-64 and twofold at ages 65-84. The excess mortality was chiefly from diseases that can be caused by smoking. Positive associations with smoking were confirmed for death from cancers of the mouth, oesophagus, pharynx, larynx, lung, pancreas, and bladder; from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and other respiratory diseases; from vascular diseases; from peptic ulcer; and (perhaps because of confounding by personality and alcohol use) from cirrhosis, suicide, and poisoning. A negative association was confirmed with death from Parkinson's disease. Those who stopped smoking before middle age subsequently avoided almost all of the excess risk that they would otherwise have suffered, but even those who stopped smoking in middle age were subsequently at substantially less risk than those who continued to smoke.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Results from the first 20 years of this study, and of other studies at that time, substantially underestimated the hazards of long term use of tobacco. It now seems that about half of all regular cigarette smokers will eventually be killed by their habit.
authors.affiliation: Imperial Cancer Research Fund Cancer Studies Unit, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, Radcliffe Infirmary, Oxford.
authors.forename: R
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Doll
authors.forename: R
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Peto
authors.forename: K
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Wheatley
authors.forename: R
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Gray
authors.forename: I
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Sutherland
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000367:Age Factors; D000368:Aged; D000369:Aged, 80 and over; D002423:Cause of Death; D005500:Follow-Up Studies; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D009026:Mortality / Q000639:trends; D011446:Prospective Studies; D012907:Smoking / Q000401:mortality* / Q000639:trends; D016019:Survival Analysis; D015996:Survival Rate; D006113:United Kingdom / Q000453:epidemiology