title: Reproductive function and outcome of pregnancy after liver transplantation in women.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To discuss menstrual function before and after liver transplantation, immunosuppression during pregnancy, outcome and management of pregnancy, and use of contraception in women after liver transplantation.
  
  
  METHODS
  We review the relevant medical literature and describe our clinical experience in the management of gynecologic and obstetric issues in recipients of liver transplants.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Menstrual abnormalities, such as amenorrhea, oligomenorrhea, irregular bleeding, and metrorrhagia, are common in women with liver disease and may often be the first clinical indication of liver dysfunction. Normal menstrual function is frequently restored after transplantation. Successful pregnancies have occurred in recipients of liver transplants, but such pregnancies are often complicated by preterm delivery, preeclampsia, and infection. Use of immunosuppressive medications should be maintained during pregnancy, and drug concentrations should be carefully monitored; none has been found to be teratogenic. Pregnancy does not seem to accelerate graft rejection. Barrier contraception or sterilization, if appropriate, seems to be the safest option for these patients.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Because liver transplantation leads to restoration of normal menstruation, female patients of reproductive age must be counseled about the possibility of pregnancy and the use of contraception. Pregnancy should be avoided for at least the first 6 months after transplantation. With specialized care and attention, pregnancies are generally associated with good outcomes.
authors.affiliation: Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, Magee-Womens Hospital, Pittsburgh, PA 15213.
authors.forename: S A
authors.initials: SA
authors.lastname: Laifer
authors.forename: R S
authors.initials: RS
authors.lastname: Guido
mesh_terms: D002908:Chronic Disease; D003267:Contraception; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007165:Immunosuppression Therapy; D008107:Liver Diseases / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000601:surgery; D016031:Liver Transplantation; D008598:Menstruation / Q000502:physiology*; D011247:Pregnancy; D011256:Pregnancy Outcome