title: Trauma and military applications of blood substitutes.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To review potential clinical uses of erythrocyte substitutes in treating military battlefield casualties, with specific emphasis on combat injury rates and wounding patterns, resuscitation doctrine and logistic requirements.
  
  
  METHODS
  Review of published medical literature and of unclassified documents from the U.S. Armed Forces Blood Program.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Hemorrhage is the leading cause of death on the battlefield. Early intervention, with definitive treatment, could save up to 30% of soldiers who are killed in action or who die of wounds. Hemorrhage control and rapid volume expansion in appropriate casualties are the main priorities in pre-hospital resuscitation of battlefield casualties. The role for oxygen-carrying fluids in the initial management of military injuries is undefined; however, erythrocyte substitutes could reduce the logistic requirements for blood in field hospitals. In recent wars, outdating of stored blood resulted in 60-95% of units being discarded: 60% of 1.3 million units in Vietnam and 95% of 120,000 units in the Persian Gulf War.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Safety, long storage life, light unit weight, and tolerance to environmental extremes are all characteristics that are necessary for erythrocyte substitutes to extend or replace the use of stored blood in treating battlefield casualties.
authors.affiliation: Letterman Army Institute of Research, Presidio of San Francisco, California 94129-6800.
authors.forename: J C
authors.initials: JC
authors.lastname: Bowersox
authors.forename: J R
authors.initials: JR
authors.lastname: Hess
mesh_terms: D001802:Blood Substitutes / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D004189:Disaster Planning; D017707:Erythrocyte Transfusion; D006470:Hemorrhage / Q000517:prevention & control; D006801:Humans; D014857:Warfare; D014947:Wounds and Injuries / Q000150:complications / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000209:etiology / Q000628:therapy*
chemical_list: D001802:Blood Substitutes