title: Power, muscular work, and external forces in cycling.
abstract: Cycling performance is affected by the interaction of a number of variables, including environment, mechanical, and human factors. Engineers have focused on the development of more efficient bicycles. Kinesiologists have examined cycling performance from a human perspective. This paper summarizes only certain aspects of human ergonomics of cycling, especially those which are important for the recent current research in our departments. Power is a key to performance of physical work. During locomotion an imaginary flow of energy takes place from the metabolism to the environment, with some efficiency. The 'useful' mechanical muscle power output might be used to perform movements and to do work against the environment. The external power is defined as the sum of joint powers, each calculated as the product of the joint (net) moment and angular velocity. This definition of external power is closely related to the mean external power as applied to exercise physiology: the sum of joint powers reflects all mechanical power which in principle can be used to fulfil a certain task. In this paper, the flow of energy for cycling is traced quantitatively as far as possible. Studies on the total lower limb can give insight into the contribution of individual muscles to external power. The muscle velocity (positive or negative) is obtained from the positions and orientations of body segments and a bar linkage model of the lower limb. The muscle activity can be measured by electromyography. In this way, positive and negative work regions in individual muscles are identified. Synergy between active agonistic/antagonistic muscle groups occurs in order to deliver external power. Maximum power is influenced by body position, geometry of the bicycle and pedalling rate. This has to be interpreted in terms of the length-tension and force-velocity-power relationships of the involved muscles. Flat road and uphill cycling at different saddle-tube angles is simulated on an ergometer. The measured pedal forces (magnitude and direction) are only dependent on the intersegmental orientation of saddle tube, crank position, upper and lower leg, and foot. The changed direction of the gravitational force with respect to the saddle-tube does not interfere with the co-ordinated force production pattern. During locomotory cycling at constant speed the external power is mainly used to overcome the aerodynamic friction force. This force and the rolling resistance are determined by coasting down experiments, yielding the external power.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)
authors.affiliation: Faculty of Human Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: G
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: de Groot
authors.forename: E
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Welbergen
authors.forename: L
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Clijsen
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Clarijs
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Cabri
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Antonis
mesh_terms: D001642:Bicycling / Q000502:physiology*; D016552:Ergometry; D006804:Ergonomics; D006801:Humans; D007596:Joints / Q000502:physiology; D008124:Locomotion / Q000502:physiology; D009119:Muscle Contraction / Q000502:physiology*; D005082:Physical Exertion / Q000502:physiology*