title: Depressive comorbidity in children and adolescents: empirical, theoretical, and methodological issues.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The purpose of the study was to examine comorbidity in the context of child and adolescent depression.
  
  
  METHODS
  The authors reviewed recent epidemiological studies using standardized interviews and DSM-III or DSM-III-R criteria.
  
  
  RESULTS
  There was a high rate of comorbidity in children and adolescents with major depressive disorders or dysthymia. Comorbidity with conduct disorder/oppositional defiant disorder ranged from 21% to 83%; comorbidity with anxiety disorder ranged from 30% to 75%; and comorbidity with attention deficit disorder ranged from 0% to 57.1%. Rates of depressive comorbidity found in community studies were similar to the rates found in clinical studies. In almost all cases, the disorders were more common in depressed children than expected by chance, and the rates of other disorders in depressed children were higher than the rates of depression in those with depression.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The mechanisms by which comorbidity occurs are obscure at present. Several possibilities and their implications for nosology, epidemiology, and treatment research are discussed.
authors.affiliation: Developmental Epidemiology Program, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710.
authors.forename: A
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Angold
authors.forename: E J
authors.initials: EJ
authors.lastname: Costello
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000367:Age Factors; D001008:Anxiety Disorders / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000453:epidemiology; D001289:Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000453:epidemiology; D002648:Child; D002653:Child Behavior Disorders / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000453:epidemiology; D015897:Comorbidity; D003866:Depressive Disorder / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000453:epidemiology*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D015995:Prevalence; D011569:Psychiatric Status Rating Scales; D009626:Terminology as Topic