title: Anesthetics and automaticity of dominant and latent pacemakers in chronically instrumented dogs. I. Methodology, conscious state, and halothane anesthesia: comparison with and without muscarinic blockade during exposure to epinephrine.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Supraventricular dysrhythmias are common during anesthesia, but have been incompletely investigated. Mechanisms may involve altered automaticity of subsidiary pacemakers and participation of vagal reflexes. The following hypotheses were tested: (1) shifts from the sinoatrial (SA) node to subsidiary pacemakers require intact vagal reflexes and (2) halothane sensitizes the heart to epinephrine-induced atrial pacemaker shifts.
  
  
  METHODS
  Epicardial electrodes were implanted in eight dogs on both atrial appendages, the right ventricle, along the sulcus terminalis, and at the His bundle. Weekly testing awake (control), awake with atropine methylnitrate, with 1 and 2 micrograms epinephrine.kg-1.min-1 (3 min-infusions), and under 1.25 and 2 MAC halothane was performed. Electrograms were analyzed for the site of earliest activation (SEA), which was scored 1-6 depending on the distance from the SA node, and expressed as the SEA value.
  
  
  RESULTS
  In conscious dogs (control) and at 1.25 MAC halothane, epinephrine increased the SEA values (shifted activation from SA node) and blood pressure, and decreased heart rate; however, with atropine, SEA values were unaffected by epinephrine, although blood pressure and heart rate were elevated. At 2 MAC, atropine did not affect the epinephrine-induced increase in SEA values. Halothane increased SEA values when combined with 1 micrograms epinephrine.kg-1.min-1.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Pacemaker shifts account for atrial dysrhythmias in the conscious state and during 1.25 MAC halothane with epinephrine, and require vagal participation. Halothane sensitizes the heart to epinephrine-induced atrial dysrhythmias. Atropine and halothane facilitate His bundle beats during exposure to epinephrine.
authors.affiliation: Department of Anesthesiology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee 53226.
authors.forename: H J
authors.initials: HJ
authors.lastname: Woehlck
authors.forename: M N
authors.initials: MN
authors.lastname: Vicenzi
authors.forename: Z J
authors.initials: ZJ
authors.lastname: Bosnjak
authors.forename: J L
authors.initials: JL
authors.lastname: Atlee
mesh_terms: D000758:Anesthesia; D000818:Animals; D001145:Arrhythmias, Cardiac / Q000209:etiology; D001794:Blood Pressure / Q000187:drug effects; D002304:Cardiac Pacing, Artificial; D004285:Dogs; D004837:Epinephrine / Q000494:pharmacology*; D005260:Female; D006221:Halothane / Q000494:pharmacology; D006339:Heart Rate / Q000187:drug effects; D008297:Male; D010276:Parasympatholytics / Q000494:pharmacology*; D011976:Receptors, Muscarinic / Q000187:drug effects / Q000502:physiology; D012849:Sinoatrial Node / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000502:physiology
chemical_list: D010276:Parasympatholytics; D011976:Receptors, Muscarinic; D006221:Halothane; D004837:Epinephrine