title: Do North American women need supplemental vitamin D during pregnancy or lactation?
abstract: Studies in European and other countries have shown that vitamin D deficiency during pregnancy may adversely affect fetal growth, bone ossification, tooth enamel formation, and neonatal calcium homeostasis. Whether effects of vitamin D deficiency on pregnant or lactating mothers differ from effects observed in nonpregnant or nonlactating women is not clear. Poor maternal vitamin D status during lactation results in low breast-milk vitamin D. However, human milk usually contains small vitamin D amounts and, under normal circumstances, the sunshine exposure of human-milk--fed infants is the major factor affecting their vitamin D status. Mothers at risk of vitamin D deficiency are those who avoid dairy products, which are routinely vitamin D fortified, and live in more northern latitudes. Dark-skinned women also are theoretically at risk of vitamin D deficiency. Sunshine exposure is a major vitamin D source, and given adequate exposure, supplemental vitamin D is not necessary. However, defining adequate sunshine exposure is difficult.
authors.affiliation: Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati Medical Center, OH 45267-0541.
authors.forename: B L
authors.initials: BL
authors.lastname: Specker
mesh_terms: D015519:Bone Density; D005314:Embryonic and Fetal Development; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007231:Infant, Newborn; D007774:Lactation / Q000378:metabolism; D007775:Lactation Disorders / Q000150:complications / Q000517:prevention & control*; D011247:Pregnancy; D011248:Pregnancy Complications / Q000517:prevention & control*; D012307:Risk Factors; D013472:Sunlight; D014481:United States; D014807:Vitamin D / Q000008:administration & dosage* / Q000378:metabolism / Q000627:therapeutic use; D014808:Vitamin D Deficiency / Q000150:complications / Q000517:prevention & control*
chemical_list: D014807:Vitamin D