title: Factors affecting x-ray spectra.
abstract: The x-ray spectrum is defined as the energy distribution of the radiation produced in an x-ray exposure. The x-ray spectrum has a major impact on image quality and radiation dose delivered to patients. The authors explored the effects of three key factors on x-ray spectra: generator type, peak tube potential, and filtration. Different generator types are characterized by the amount of ripple in the kilovoltage waveform. Those with high (100%) ripple such as single-phase units produce less penetrating radiation than units with low (4%) ripple such as three-phase, 12-pulse generators. As peak tube potential increases, the half-value layer increases nearly linearly; radiation output increases by approximately the square of the tube potential. Filtration materials with atomic numbers less than 42, such as aluminum, titanium, copper, and niobium, produce similar spectra, with only slight variations in efficiency. Although aluminum has the lowest efficiency, this may be compensated for by increasing milliampere seconds. Filtration in addition to the inherent filtration provided by the tube reduces both skin surface dose and average depth-dose, with the optimal amount being approximately 2-3 mm or less of aluminum-equivalent material.
authors.affiliation: Department of Radiology, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University and Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center, New York, NY 10032.
authors.forename: E L
authors.initials: EL
authors.lastname: Nickoloff
authors.forename: H L
authors.initials: HL
authors.lastname: Berman
mesh_terms: D005374:Filtration; D006801:Humans; D011829:Radiation Dosage; D011835:Radiation Protection; D011856:Radiographic Image Enhancement; D011859:Radiography / Q000295:instrumentation; D011874:Radiometry