title: Improving intensive care: observations based on organizational case studies in nine intensive care units: a prospective, multicenter study.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To examine organizational practices associated with higher and lower intensive care unit (ICU) outcome performance.
  
  
  METHODS
  Prospective multicenter study. Onsite organizational analysis; prospective inception cohort.
  
  
  METHODS
  Nine ICUs (one medical, two surgical, six medical-surgical) at five teaching and four nonteaching hospitals.
  
  
  METHODS
  A sample of 3,672 ICU admissions; 316 nurses and 202 physicians.
  
  
  METHODS
  Interviews and direct observations by a team of clinical and organizational researchers. Demographic, physiologic, and outcome data for an average of 408 admissions per ICU; and questionnaires on ICU structure and organization. The ratio of actual/predicted hospital death rate was used to measure ICU effectiveness; the ratio of actual/predicted length of ICU stay was used to assess efficiency.
  
  
  RESULTS
  ICUs with superior risk-adjusted survival could not be distinguished by structural and organizational questionnaires or by global judgment following on-site analysis. Superior organizational practices among these ICUs were related to a patient-centered culture, strong medical and nursing leadership, effective communication and coordination, and open, collaborative approaches to solving problems and managing conflict.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The best and worst organizational practices found in this study can be used by ICU leaders as a checklist for improving ICU management.
authors.affiliation: ICU Research Unit, George Washington University Medical Center, Washington, DC 20037.
authors.forename: J E
authors.initials: JE
authors.lastname: Zimmerman
authors.forename: S M
authors.initials: SM
authors.lastname: Shortell
authors.forename: D M
authors.initials: DM
authors.lastname: Rousseau
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Duffy
authors.forename: R R
authors.initials: RR
authors.lastname: Gillies
authors.forename: W A
authors.initials: WA
authors.lastname: Knaus
authors.forename: K
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Devers
authors.forename: D P
authors.initials: DP
authors.lastname: Wagner
authors.forename: E A
authors.initials: EA
authors.lastname: Draper
mesh_terms: D003422:Critical Care / Q000592:standards; D017598:Efficiency, Organizational; D006801:Humans; D007362:Intensive Care Units / Q000458:organization & administration* / Q000592:standards; D007857:Leadership; D007902:Length of Stay; D009026:Mortality; D015279:Organizational Culture; D017063:Outcome Assessment, Health Care; D010043:Outcome and Process Assessment, Health Care; D011446:Prospective Studies; D014481:United States