title: The menopause: health implications and clinical management.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To review the anatomy, physiology, clinical symptoms, long-term health effects, and treatment of the menopause and climacteric syndrome, with a special emphasis on features, such as incontinence, particularly relevant to geriatric medicine.
  
  
  METHODS
  English-language publications on menopause and the climacteric.
  
  
  METHODS
  Articles and books containing recent information pertinent to the topics covered. Studies in human subjects were given priority, but primate studies that amplify physiologic concepts are included.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Due to increased longevity, the average US woman will spend one-third of her life as a postmenopausal individual. Anatomic and physiologic changes associated with the peri- and postmenopausal state include hot flushes, genitourinary atrophy, and bone loss. Possible correlates of the menopausal transition and postmenopause include affective changes and unfavorable alterations in lipoproteins and other cardiac risk factors. Clinical correlates of these changes can include incontinence, sexual dysfunction, increased risk of fracture, dysphoric mood, and increased risk of cardiovascular disease. Formal indications for estrogen therapy are hot flushes, genital atrophy, and osteoporosis prevention; other common clinical uses are reviewed. Non-contraceptive estrogens can be administered orally, transdermally, vaginally, or by injection. Each route and preparation has some unique features with respect to actions and side effects. Progestins, in adequate doses, protect against the unwanted side effect of endometrial hyperplasia; alternatives to progestin use are presented. Non-hormonal alternatives for some peri- and postmenopausal symptoms are described.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  A discussion of the menopause and the benefits and risks of hormone therapy should be part of the routine health care of older women. Since the use of hormone therapy is elective, health care providers must elicit the goals, needs, and preferences of each patient, supply her with relevant information, and serve as a facilitator of her individual decision.
authors: Division of General Internal Medicine, UCLA School of Medicine.
authors: G A
authors: GA
authors: Greendale
authors: H L
authors: HL
authors: Judd
mesh_terms: D002318:Cardiovascular Diseases / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000517:prevention & control; D002979:Climacteric / Q000187:drug effects / Q000502:physiology / Q000523:psychology; D015914:Estrogen Replacement Therapy / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000379:methods / Q000592:standards; D005260:Female; D005831:Genital Diseases, Female / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000503:physiopathology; D005853:Geriatrics / Q000379:methods*; D006801:Humans; D008017:Life Expectancy; D008593:Menopause / Q000187:drug effects / Q000502:physiology / Q000523:psychology; D008875:Middle Aged; D008960:Models, Psychological; D015663:Osteoporosis, Postmenopausal / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000517:prevention & control; D012725:Sexual Behavior; D014570:Urologic Diseases / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000503:physiopathology; D016387:Women's Health