title: Tissue differentiation and correlated changes in enzymatic activities during primary antler development in fallow deer (Dama dama).
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Deer antlers are useful models for studying bone growth and biomineralization in mammals. To achieve a better understanding of the mechanisms underlying the formation of primary cranial appendages in deer, the present study relates the histogenesis of primary antlers to changes in enzymatic (phosphatase) activities in the different tissue zones of this organ.
  
  
  METHODS
  The growing tips of the primary antlers (4.3 to 5 cm in length) were removed from five fallow bucks, aged about 10 months. Part of the material was processed for light microscopy. The other part was cryofixed, and the different histologically defined regions were analyzed for the activities of alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP) as well as for the concentrations of inorganic and organic phosphate.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Histologically, the primary antler could in distoproximal direction be divided into eight different zones (dermis; perichondrium; zones of cartilage formation, hypertrophy, mineralization, and degeneration; primary spongiosa; secondary spongiosa). The histological results demonstrate that the elongation of the primary antler proceeded through a modified form of endochondral ossification, resembling that seen during formation of pedicles and secondary antlers. The concentrations of the extractable activities of ALP and TRAP progressively increased from the perichondrium to the zone of cartilage mineralization. Thus, highest activity of TRAP during primary antler formation occurred at an earlier stage of tissue differentiation than in somatic endochondral ossification, where the enzyme is a biochemical marker of osteoclastic activity during bone remodeling. The present results might reflect the presence of osteoclastic precursor cells in the zone of cartilage mineralization as an adaptation to the rapidity of antler growth. Our findings of the contents of extractable ALP, inorganic and organic phosphate in the different tissue zones of the developing primary antler are in good agreement with previous studies analyzing epiphyseal growth plates and point to the fact that ALP causes a rise in inorganic phosphate and the removal of inhibitors for mineralization, like pyrophosphate.
authors.affiliation: Institut für Spezielle Zoologie und Vergleichende Embryologie, Universität Münster, Germany.
authors.forename: T
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Szuwart
authors.forename: H
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Kierdorf
authors.forename: U
authors.initials: U
authors.lastname: Kierdorf
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Althoff
authors.forename: G
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Clemen
mesh_terms: D000135:Acid Phosphatase / Q000378:metabolism; D000469:Alkaline Phosphatase / Q000378:metabolism; D000818:Animals; D000999:Antlers / Q000201:enzymology / Q000254:growth & development*; D015415:Biomarkers; D001846:Bone Development; D002454:Cell Differentiation; D003670:Deer / Q000033:anatomy & histology* / Q000502:physiology; D007527:Isoenzymes / Q000378:metabolism; D008297:Male; D000071681:Tartrate-Resistant Acid Phosphatase
chemical_list: D015415:Biomarkers; D007527:Isoenzymes; D000469:Alkaline Phosphatase; D000135:Acid Phosphatase; D000071681:Tartrate-Resistant Acid Phosphatase