title: Developing ethical standards for responsible research: Why? Form? Functions? Process? Outcomes?
abstract: Any profession that is considering the development of ethical standards should give serious attention to the intended purposes of such standards, what form they should take, what functions they will serve, how the process for developing them should be organized, what outcomes are sought, and what values are central to the mission and performance of the profession. The profession serves as a normative reference group for individual practitioners and through ethical standards clarifies, for both its members and outsiders, the norms that ought to govern professional behavior. Such standards may be aspirational, educational, or regulatory, and may perform many functions, nine of which are discussed. The process of developing standards is assessed because of the role it plays in gaining consensus on professional values and ethical norms. Finally, several outcomes likely to increase the value and utility of ethical standards are identified.
authors.affiliation: Program on Scientific Freedom, Responsibility and Law, American Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington, DC 20005, USA.
authors.forename: M S
authors.initials: MS
authors.lastname: Frankel
mesh_terms: D035843:Biomedical Research; D032781:Codes of Ethics; D004282:Documentation; D004995:Ethics, Professional; D006801:Humans; D017063:Outcome Assessment, Health Care; D017064:Process Assessment, Health Care; D011361:Professional Competence; D011639:Public Opinion; D011640:Public Policy; D011641:Public Relations; D012106:Research; D012941:Social Responsibility