title: The frog brainstem preparation as a model for studying the central control of breathing in tetrapods.
abstract: Our frog brainstem preparation revealed mechanisms for the central control of breathing that are in many ways similar to those of mammals. Thus, the basic control mechanisms for air-breathing appear to have been present in the Devonian common ancestors of frogs and mammals and may be common to all lung-breathing vertebrates.
  
  
  METHODS
  The in vitro frog brainstem, including motor nuclei of cranial nerves V to X, maintains frequency and ratio of fictive buccal oscillations to fictive lung inflation episodes comparable with that of the living animal. In this preparation, transection caudal to V abolishes spontaneous discharge in X but slow, spontaneous discharge in V may remain. Independent central pattern generation is present in the left and right half-brainstems.
  The frequency of fictive lung inflations increases with decrease in pH within the physiological range.
  Biphasic response, consisting of a pause, followed by a dramatic increase in the frequency of fictive inspirations and positive baseline deflection, followed, in turn, by slow return of the baseline to the control level with frequency remaining above control as long as glutamate is applied. Local application reveals glutamate-sensitive sites in the ventral reticular formation.
  Similar to glutamate but the frequency of fictive inspirations decreases below control values.
  The normal temporal sequence in firing of motor neurons of cranial nerves is disrupted and all nerves are synchronously active. The firing sequence of respiratory neurons is consistent with a grouping possibly homologous to the mammalian inspiratory, post-inspiratory and expiratory phases.
authors.affiliation: Respiratory Research Group, University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada.
authors.forename: S F
authors.initials: SF
authors.lastname: Perry
authors.forename: H A
authors.initials: HA
authors.lastname: McLean
authors.forename: N
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Kogo
authors.forename: N
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Kimura
authors.forename: H
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Kawasaki
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Sakurai
authors.forename: E A
authors.initials: EA
authors.lastname: Kabotyanski
authors.forename: J E
authors.initials: JE
authors.lastname: Remmers
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001001:Anura / Q000502:physiology*; D001933:Brain Stem / Q000648:ultrastructure; D018698:Glutamic Acid / Q000494:pharmacology; D066298:In Vitro Techniques; D012119:Respiration / Q000502:physiology*; D013331:Strychnine / Q000494:pharmacology; D013373:Substance P / Q000494:pharmacology
chemical_list: D013373:Substance P; D018698:Glutamic Acid; D013331:Strychnine