title: Full-scale studies of factors related to coliform regrowth in drinking water.
abstract: An 18-month survey of 31 water systems in North America was conducted to determine the factors that contribute to the occurrence of coliform bacteria in drinking water. The survey included analysis of assimilable organic carbon (AOC), coliforms, disinfectant residuals, and operational parameters. Coliform bacteria were detected in 27.8% of the 2-week sampling periods and were associated with the following factors: filtration, temperature, disinfectant type and disinfectant level, AOC level, corrosion control, and operational characteristics. Four systems in the study that used unfiltered surface water accounted for 26.6% of the total number of bacterial samples collected but 64.3% (1,013 of 1,576) of the positive coliform samples. The occurrence of coliform bacteria was significantly higher when water temperatures were > 15 degrees C. For filtered systems that used free chlorine, 0.97% of 33,196 samples contained coliform bacteria, while 0.51% of 35,159 samples from chloraminated systems contained coliform bacteria. The average density of coliform bacteria was 35 times higher in free-chlorinated systems than in chloraminated water (0.60 CFU/100 ml for free-chlorinated water compared with 0.017 CFU/100 ml for chloraminated water). Systems that maintained dead-end free chlorine levels of < 0.2 mg/liter or monochloramine levels of < 0.5 mg/liter had substantially more coliform occurrences than systems that maintained higher disinfectant residuals. Free-chlorinated systems with AOC levels greater than 100 micrograms/liter had 82% more coliform-positive samples and 19 times higher coliform levels than free-chlorinated systems with average AOC levels less than 99 micrograms/liter. Systems that maintained a phosphate-based corrosion inhibitor and limited the amount of unlined cast iron pipe had fewer coliform bacteria. Several operational characteristics of the treatment process or the distribution system were also associated with increased rates of coliform occurrence. The study concludes that the occurrence of coliform bacteria within a distribution system is dependent upon a complex interaction of chemical, physical, operational, and engineering parameters. No one factor could account for all of the coliform occurrences, and one must consider all of the parameters described above in devising a solution to the regrowth problem.
authors.affiliation: American Water Works Service Company, Inc., Voorhees, New Jersey 08043, USA.
authors.forename: M W
authors.initials: MW
authors.lastname: LeChevallier
authors.forename: N J
authors.initials: NJ
authors.lastname: Welch
authors.forename: D B
authors.initials: DB
authors.lastname: Smith
mesh_terms: D003625:Data Collection; D004202:Disinfectants; D004755:Enterobacteriaceae / Q000254:growth & development / Q000302:isolation & purification*; D005374:Filtration; D006801:Humans; D009656:North America; D011891:Rain; D012498:Sanitary Engineering; D013696:Temperature; D014871:Water Microbiology; D018508:Water Purification / Q000379:methods; D014881:Water Supply
chemical_list: D004202:Disinfectants