title: Automated infusion of nitroglycerin to control arterial hypertension during cardiac surgery.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To evaluate the feasibility of closed-loop blood pressure control during cardiac surgery.
  
  
  METHODS
  A closed-loop system regulated peroperative hypertension by controlling the infusion rate of the vasodilator nitroglycerin (NTG). The controller consisted of a regulator which was monitored by a supervisory computer program. Mean arterial pressure (MAP) was calculated every 5 s from measurements of the radial artery pressure signal. The regulator calculated an NTG infusion rate with each new MAP measurement. The supervisory computer program monitored the regulator's actions and adapted or overruled the regulator when required.
  
  
  METHODS
  The cardiac surgery operating room.
  
  
  METHODS
  46 patients who were scheduled for cardiac surgery and who developed peroperative hypertension.
  
  
  METHODS
  Patients were scheduled for either bypass or valve replacement surgery. The closed-loop system was used to control hypertension before and after cardiopulmonary bypass. The use of the closed-loop system did not require deviation from the protocol normally used during cardiac surgery. All patients received standard continuous anaesthesia with opioids.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Initial automatic control was achieved in 9.4 (4.1 SD) min. The percentage of time that MAP remained in a range around the target MAP of +/- 10 and +/- 20 mmHg was 74 and 94%, respectively. The mean NTG infusion rate while MAP was within 5 mmHg of target MAP was 1.14 (0.84 SD) micrograms kg-1 min-1. Target MAP was set between 65 and 90 mmHg. There was a small group of patients (6 out of 46) who did not respond to NTG and required alternative drug therapy.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The controller provided fast and stable control in all patients. The expert knowledge implemented through the supervisory computer program enabled the controller to respond adequately to the rapid changes in arterial pressures commonly associated with cardiac surgery. We conclude that closed-loop control of arterial pressure is feasible not only in the cardiac surgical care unit but also during cardiac surgery.
authors.affiliation: Department of Anaesthesiology, University of Limburg, Maastricht, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: S A
authors.initials: SA
authors.lastname: Hoeksel
authors.forename: J J
authors.initials: JJ
authors.lastname: Schreuder
authors.forename: J A
authors.initials: JA
authors.lastname: Blom
authors.forename: J G
authors.initials: JG
authors.lastname: Maessen
authors.forename: O C
authors.initials: OC
authors.lastname: Penn
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D015924:Blood Pressure Monitors; D006348:Cardiac Surgical Procedures / Q000009:adverse effects*; D004360:Drug Therapy, Computer-Assisted; D005240:Feasibility Studies; D005246:Feedback; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D006973:Hypertension / Q000188:drug therapy*; D007260:Infusion Pumps; D007262:Infusions, Intravenous; D007431:Intraoperative Complications / Q000188:drug therapy*; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D016343:Monitoring, Intraoperative; D005996:Nitroglycerin / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D014665:Vasodilator Agents / Q000627:therapeutic use*
chemical_list: D014665:Vasodilator Agents; D005996:Nitroglycerin