title: Toombak-associated oral mucosal lesions in Sudanese show a low prevalence of epithelial dysplasia.
abstract: Clinical (n = 281) and histopathological (n = 141) characteristics of toombak-associated oral mucosal lesions detected in an epidemiological study in northern Sudan in 1992/93 are described. The lesional site in the majority of toombak users was the anterior lower labial groove and the lower labial mucosa. 4 degrees (1-4) of clinical severity of lesions, similar to those used to characterise Swedish snuff-dipper's lesion, were applied. An association between the severity of mucosal lesions and a longer lifetime duration (> 10 years) of toombak use was found, but the severity was not related to the daily frequency of the habit. Parakeratosis, pale surface staining of the epithelium and basal cell hyperplasia were commonly observed, but epithelial dysplasia was infrequent (10/141). The most significant observation was a PAS-positive amorphous deposit between the lamina propria and the submucosa, found in 25/141 biopsies. The clinical and histopathological features of toombak lesions are closely similar to Swedish moist snuff-dipper's lesions and this may reflect the high alkalinity of these products, resulting in an alkaline burn on the oral mucosa following chronic exposure. The low prevalence of epithelial dysplasia implies a low risk of malignant transformation. Nevertheless, the high concentrations of tobacco-specific nitrosamines present in toombak, and the high prevalence of oral cancer in Sudan, mandate biopsy and careful histopathological analysis of any such lesions detected in habitues.
authors.affiliation: School of Dentistry, Khartoum, Sudan.
authors.forename: A M
authors.initials: AM
authors.lastname: Idris
authors.forename: K A
authors.initials: KA
authors.lastname: Warnakulasuriya
authors.forename: Y E
authors.initials: YE
authors.lastname: Ibrahim
authors.forename: R
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Nielsen
authors.forename: D
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Cooper
authors.forename: N W
authors.initials: NW
authors.lastname: Johnson
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D000369:Aged, 80 and over; D000468:Alkalies / Q000009:adverse effects; D002057:Burns, Chemical / Q000473:pathology; D002273:Carcinogens / Q000009:adverse effects; D002471:Cell Transformation, Neoplastic / Q000473:pathology; D004848:Epithelium / Q000473:pathology; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007972:Leukoplakia, Oral / Q000473:pathology; D008046:Lip / Q000473:pathology; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D009059:Mouth Diseases / Q000145:classification / Q000209:etiology / Q000473:pathology*; D009061:Mouth Mucosa / Q000473:pathology*; D009062:Mouth Neoplasms / Q000473:pathology; D009602:Nitrosamines / Q000009:adverse effects; D010947:Plants, Toxic; D015995:Prevalence; D012307:Risk Factors; D017693:Sodium Bicarbonate / Q000009:adverse effects; D013397:Sudan; D013548:Sweden; D013997:Time Factors; D014030:Tobacco, Smokeless / Q000009:adverse effects*
chemical_list: D000468:Alkalies; D002273:Carcinogens; D009602:Nitrosamines; D017693:Sodium Bicarbonate