title: Venous outflow of the leg: anatomy and physiologic mechanism of the plantar venous plexus.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Mechanisms of venous outflow from the leg and foot have not been clearly defined. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the anatomy and physiologic mechanism of the plantar venous plexus and its impact on venous drainage from the tibial veins.
  
  
  METHODS
  Fifty phlebograms that contained complete foot and calf films were reviewed. On lateral films, the number of veins in the plantar venous plexus and its tibial outflow tract were counted. The length and diameter of the longest vein in the plantar venous system and the length of the foot arch were measured. The ratio of the length of the plantar venous plexus to the arch length was calculated. The presence or absence of valves within the plexus was recorded. Plantar venous plexus outflow was evaluated by an duplex ultrasonographic scan of the posterior tibial, anterior tibial, and peroneal veins during intermittent external pneumatic compression of the plantar surface of the foot.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The plantar venous plexus was composed of one to four large veins (mean, 2.7 veins) within the plantar aspect of the foot. The diameter of these veins was 4.0 +/- 1.2 mm. The veins coursed diagonally from a lateral position in the forefoot to a medial position at the level of the ankle, spanning 75% of the foot arch. Prominent valves were recognized within the plantar veins in 22 of 50 patients. The plexus coalesced into an outflow tract of one to four veins (mean, 2.5 veins) that flowed exclusively into the posterior tibial venous system. Small accessory veins that drained the plantar surface of the forefoot flowed into either the posterior tibial or peroneal veins. This pattern of selective drainage of the plantar venous plexus was confirmed by duplex imaging. Mechanical compression of the plantar venous plexus produced a mean peak velocity in the posterior tibial veins of 123 +/- 71 cm/sec, in the anterior tibial veins of 24 +/- 14 cm/sec, and in the peroneal veins of 29 +/- 26 cm/sec.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The plantar venous plexus is composed of multiple large-diameter veins that span the arch of the foot. Compression of the plantar venous plexus, such as that which occurs during ambulation, is capable of significantly increasing flow through the posterior tibial venous system into the popliteal vein. Its function may be integral to venous outflow from the calf and priming of the more proximal calf muscle pump.
authors.affiliation: Department of Surgery, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA.
authors.forename: J V
authors.initials: JV
authors.lastname: White
authors.forename: M L
authors.initials: ML
authors.lastname: Katz
authors.forename: P
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Cisek
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Kreithen
mesh_terms: D002648:Child; D005260:Female; D005528:Foot / Q000098:blood supply* / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D010690:Phlebography; D012039:Regional Blood Flow; D014159:Transducers; D018615:Ultrasonography, Doppler, Color; D014680:Veins / Q000033:anatomy & histology / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging / Q000502:physiology