title: Ecology of weaning among nomadic Turkana pastoralists of Kenya: maternal thinking, maternal behavior, and human adaptive strategies.
abstract: Weaning of human children is a complex process involving the introduction of non-breast-milk foods, reduction in suckling activity, and eventual termination of breast feeding. Because the choice of strategies for each component of the weaning process depends on the operating environmental constraints, reproductive demands on women, and prevailing levels of infant and weanling mortality, it is appropriate to examine weaning practices as human adaptive strategies. Here, I examine the structure of weaning and maternal attitudes toward weaning among nomadic Turkana pastoralists from the perspective of human adaptation. Using retrospective and prospective data on breast feeding, the use of non-breast-milk foods, and the cessation of breast feeding. I identify ideal strategies as those defined by Turkana women. Real behavior in relation to weaning, however, deviates considerably from the ideal, and this deviation reflects adaptive responses to nutritional and disease risks to infants. Particular attention is given to problematic aspects of weaning practices in Turkana, such as premature introduction of non-breast-milk foods and abrupt termination of breast feeding, which have been shown to contribute to high infant and weanling mortality in populations in developing countries. These practices have evolved from the dual caretaking and childbearing role of women and the necessity of reconciling the needs of the breast-feeding child with the demands of the next pregnancy. As such, they represent rational strategies for enhancing reproductive success in this and other similarly stressful environments.
authors.affiliation: Department of Anthropology, University of Kansas, Lawrence 66045, USA.
authors.forename: S J
authors.initials: SJ
authors.lastname: Gray
mesh_terms: D000223:Adaptation, Psychological; D000328:Adult; D000704:Analysis of Variance; D001942:Breast Feeding / Q000208:ethnology; D003625:Data Collection; D003906:Developing Countries; D004463:Ecology; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007223:Infant; D007231:Infant, Newborn; D007630:Kenya / Q000453:epidemiology; D008425:Maternal Behavior / Q000208:ethnology; D009034:Mother-Child Relations; D011446:Prospective Studies; D012189:Retrospective Studies; D014886:Weaning