title: The prospects for biological control of the free-living stages of nematode parasites of livestock.
abstract: Control of nematode parasites of livestock is focused almost entirely on the parasitic stages within the host. Current methods rely on anthelmintic drugs, but these are under increasing threat with the development of resistance covering the whole spectrum of anthelmintics amongst the important nematode species of a range of livestock. However, invariably the greatest proportion of the parasite biomass resides not within the animal hosts, but in the external environment-commonly on pasture. It is in this environment that the free-living stages are vulnerable to a range of abiotic factors (extremes in temperature and desiccation) and biotic factors (macro- and micro-organisms) that may decimate their numbers. Of the latter, there are organisms, which exert their effects either indirectly by rendering faecal deposits inimical for the development of nematode eggs through to infective larvae, or directly by acting as pathogens or by exploiting the free-living stages as a food source. Within this vast assemblage of organisms, which include microarthropods, protozoa, viruses, bacteria and fungi, could well emerge a variety of biological control agents of nematode parasites. At present, greatest interest lies with the nematode-destroying fungi. Work has progressed from Petri dishes, to plots, to paddocks with several species of the genus Arthrobotrys and Duddingtonia flagrans. These studies indicate that the voracious nematophagous capabilities of these fungi, clearly demonstrated in vitro, translate to reductions in the number of infective larvae on pasture and indicate that levels of control, comparable to conventional schemes using anthelmintics, can be achieved. The challenge now lies in developing methods of administration of fungi to animals which can be applied under practical farm conditions. However, the pursuit of candidates for biological control of nematode parasites of livestock should not involve just a few species of nematophagous fungi. More than 100 species of fungi have been identified as possessing nematode destroying capabilities. These need to be more specifically investigated for their effects on free-living stages of nematode parasites of livestock, together with other classes of organisms, particularly bacteria, which have proved successful as biological control agents of arthropods.
authors.affiliation: CSIRO Division of Animal Production, Pastoral Research Laboratory, Armidale, NSW, Australia. p.waller@chiswick.anprod.csiro.au
authors.forename: P J
authors.initials: PJ
authors.lastname: Waller
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Faedo
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000829:Animals, Domestic / Q000469:parasitology*; D009348:Nematoda; D009349:Nematode Infections / Q000517:prevention & control / Q000662:veterinary*; D010572:Pest Control, Biological