title: Specific and total carotenoid intakes among oral contraceptive and estrogen hormone users in the United States.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To compare carotenoid intakes between hormone users and nonusers in a nationally representative sample of US women by demographic and lifestyle characteristics and to identify those with potentially greater risk for disease.
  
  
  METHODS
  Data from the 1987 National Health Interview Survey's-Epidemiology Supplement food frequency questionnaire were linked to the USDA-NCI Carotenoid database to estimate mean total and specific carotenoid intakes.
  
  
  METHODS
  Women (n = 8,962) were grouped by menopausal status and classified by hormone use into premenopausal oral contraceptive users/nonusers (n = 5,918) and postmenopausal estrogen replacement hormone users/nonusers (n = 3,044).
  
  
  METHODS
  Mean carotenoid intakes and standard errors were weighted using SUDAAN and adjusted for potential confounding factors using multiple linear regression analysis. Statistically significant differences were at p values < 0.01.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Compared to nonusers, oral contraceptive users had lower specific carotenoid intakes. Demographic and lifestyle characteristics differed between oral contraceptive users/nonusers and were examined in relation to carotenoid intakes. More oral contraceptive users than nonusers were married, highly educated, drank alcoholic beverages, and smoked. After adjustment for these factors in a multiple linear regression model, the associations between oral contraceptive use and carotenoid intake remained statistically significant. Mean carotenoid intakes were not significantly different among estrogen hormone replacement users versus nonusers.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Oral contraceptive users have lower dietary carotenoid intakes than nonusers. Since oral contraceptive users smoke and drink more than nonusers, and both factors are associated with lower carotenoid intakes, oral contraceptive users form a potential high risk group for disease.
authors.affiliation: Division of Cancer Prevention and Control, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892-7326, USA.
authors.forename: L C
authors.initials: LC
authors.lastname: Nebeling
authors.forename: M R
authors.initials: MR
authors.lastname: Forman
authors.forename: B I
authors.initials: BI
authors.lastname: Graubard
authors.forename: R A
authors.initials: RA
authors.lastname: Snyder
mesh_terms: D000428:Alcohol Drinking; D015992:Body Mass Index; D002338:Carotenoids / Q000008:administration & dosage*; D003276:Contraceptives, Oral; D004032:Diet; D004522:Educational Status; D015914:Estrogen Replacement Therapy; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007182:Income; D017533:Marital Status; D017698:Postmenopause; D017697:Premenopause; D012907:Smoking; D014481:United States
chemical_list: D003276:Contraceptives, Oral; D002338:Carotenoids