title: Lithium inhibits glycogen synthase kinase-3 activity and mimics wingless signalling in intact cells.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Exposing eukaryotic cells to lithium ions (Li+) during development has marked effects on cell fate and organization. The phenotypic consequences of Li+ treatment on Xenopus embryos and sporulating Dictyostelium are similar to the effects of inhibition or disruption, respectively, of a highly conserved protein serine/threonine kinase, glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3). In Drosophila, the GSK-3 homologue is encoded by zw3sgg, a segment-polarity gene involved in embryogenesis that acts downstream of wg. In higher eukaryotes, GSK-3 has been implicated in signal transduction pathways downstream of phosphoinositide 3-kinase and mitogen-activated protein kinases.
  
  
  RESULTS
  We investigated the effect of Li+ on the activity of the GSK-3 family. At physiological doses, Li+ inhibits the activity of human GSK-3 beta and Drosophila Zw3Sgg, but has no effect on other protein kinases. The effect of Li+ on GSK-3 is reversible in vitro. Treatment of cells with Li+ inhibits GSK-3-dependent phosphorylation of the microtubule-associated protein Tau. Li+ treatment of Drosophila S2 cells and rat PC12 cells induces accumulation of cytoplasmic Armadillo/beta-catenin, demonstrating that Li+ can mimic Wingless signalling in intact cells, consistent with its inhibition of GSK-3.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Li+ acts as a specific inhibitor of the GSK-3 family of protein kinases in vitro and in intact cells, and mimics Wingless signalling. This reveals a possible molecular mechanism of Li+ action on development and differentiation.
authors.affiliation: Ontario Cancer Institute, Toronto, Canada.
authors.forename: V
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Stambolic
authors.forename: L
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Ruel
authors.forename: J R
authors.initials: JR
authors.lastname: Woodgett
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D019556:COS Cells; D017871:Calcium-Calmodulin-Dependent Protein Kinases / Q000037:antagonists & inhibitors* / Q000235:genetics; D002460:Cell Line; D029721:Drosophila Proteins; D038362:Glycogen Synthase Kinase 3; D038341:Glycogen Synthase Kinases; D006801:Humans; D018021:Lithium Chloride / Q000494:pharmacology*; D008869:Microtubule-Associated Proteins / Q000037:antagonists & inhibitors* / Q000235:genetics; D016716:PC12 Cells; D017346:Protein Serine-Threonine Kinases / Q000037:antagonists & inhibitors; D011518:Proto-Oncogene Proteins / Q000378:metabolism*; D051381:Rats; D015398:Signal Transduction / Q000502:physiology*; D051155:Wnt1 Protein
chemical_list: D029721:Drosophila Proteins; D008869:Microtubule-Associated Proteins; D011518:Proto-Oncogene Proteins; D051155:Wnt1 Protein; C074622:wg protein, Drosophila; D038341:Glycogen Synthase Kinases; D017346:Protein Serine-Threonine Kinases; C080335:Sgg protein, Drosophila; D017871:Calcium-Calmodulin-Dependent Protein Kinases; D038362:Glycogen Synthase Kinase 3; D018021:Lithium Chloride