title: Spatial patterns of human water contact and Schistosoma mansoni transmission and infection in four rural areas in Machakos District, Kenya.
abstract: This paper presents the results of microgeographical studies of human water contact behavior and Schistosoma mansoni transmission levels and intensity of infection in four rural areas in Machakos District, Kenya. The relationship between intensity of infection (geometric mean egg counts) in 3502 persons aggregated in 120 household clusters and eight independent variables was investigated using straight and stepwise linear regression and mapping techniques. Results indicate that the two water contact variables, mean frequency per person and mean duration per person, as well as mean number of sites used per person, a transmission index and mean distance to the most frequently used site were the strongest predictors of geometric mean egg counts. All three distance variables were usually negatively associated with infection although intensity of infection and water contact declined relatively slowly with distance from the streams. This pattern appears to be owing to a combination of the relatively short distances, a general lack of safe alternative water sources and the use of more distant water contact sites both inside and outside the study area during periods of drought. The study of snail-to-man transmission identified number of infected snails as the major transmission variable and number of contacts as the major predictor variable. Mapping of total egg counts at the household cluster level and total number of infected snails revealed spatial association with transmission sites. All results varied considerably between study areas, owing to differences in exposure levels, transmission patterns and environmental factors. Findings are discussed in relation to the epidemiology and control of schistosomiasis and suggestions are made for further spatial studies.
authors.affiliation: Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco, USA.
authors.forename: H
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Kloos
authors.forename: A J
authors.initials: AJ
authors.lastname: Fulford
authors.forename: A E
authors.initials: AE
authors.lastname: Butterworth
authors.forename: R F
authors.initials: RF
authors.lastname: Sturrock
authors.forename: J H
authors.initials: JH
authors.lastname: Ouma
authors.forename: H C
authors.initials: HC
authors.lastname: Kariuki
authors.forename: F W
authors.initials: FW
authors.lastname: Thiongo
authors.forename: P R
authors.initials: PR
authors.lastname: Dalton
authors.forename: R K
authors.initials: RK
authors.lastname: Klumpp
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D002648:Child; D002675:Child, Preschool; D019353:Endemic Diseases; D005618:Fresh Water / Q000469:parasitology*; D015438:Health Behavior; D006801:Humans; D007223:Infant; D007630:Kenya / Q000453:epidemiology; D016014:Linear Models; D016015:Logistic Models; D010270:Parasite Egg Count; D012307:Risk Factors; D012423:Rural Health; D012555:Schistosomiasis mansoni / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000469:parasitology / Q000635:transmission*; D014881:Water Supply / Q000592:standards*