title: The determinants of parenting: an epidemiological, multi-informant, retrospective study.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  To understand the relationship between parenting and psychopathology in offspring, it is critical to clarify the determinants of parenting behaviour itself.
  
  
  METHODS
  A 16-item version of the Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI) was administered to parents of epidemiologically sampled adult female-female twin pairs, who reported on the parenting they provided to their twins, and to the twins themselves who reported on the parenting they and their co-twin had received (N = 828 twin families). Using a mixed-model regression, we examined the impact on parenting, as retrospectively reported by parents and twins, of six variable domains: demographic factors, family characteristics, parental symptoms and personality, parental psychopathology, child vulnerability and childhood temperament.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The PBI yielded three factors: warmth (W), protectiveness (P) and authoritarianism (A). W was most strongly predicted by parental personality and psychopathology, parental marital quality, and child temperament. P and A were both most strongly predicted by parental educational level and religious fundamentalism. In addition, P was predicted by neurotic/anxious traits in both parent and child. For a number of variables that predicted W, the strength of the association was stronger when twins were reporting than when parents were reporting.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Parenting is a complex, multi-determined set of behaviours that is influenced by parental personality, psychopathology, values and marital quality and by a range of child characteristics. W appears to be strongly influenced by parental and childhood temperament and vulnerability to psychiatric illness while P and A are more strongly influenced by 'sociological' factors such as religious affiliation and educational status.
authors.affiliation: Virginia Institute for Psychiatric and Behavioral Genetics, Department of Psychiatry and Human Genetics, Medical College of Virginia/Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA.
authors.forename: K S
authors.initials: KS
authors.lastname: Kendler
authors.forename: P C
authors.initials: PC
authors.lastname: Sham
authors.forename: C J
authors.initials: CJ
authors.lastname: MacLean
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D004198:Disease Susceptibility; D005191:Family Characteristics; D005192:Family Health; D005219:Father-Child Relations; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D016013:Likelihood Functions; D008297:Male; D001523:Mental Disorders / Q000150:complications; D008875:Middle Aged; D009034:Mother-Child Relations; D016487:Parenting; D012044:Regression Analysis; D012069:Religion and Psychology; D012189:Retrospective Studies; D012801:Sibling Relations; D013694:Temperament