title: Diagnosing syncope. Part 1: Value of history, physical examination, and electrocardiography. Clinical Efficacy Assessment Project of the American College of Physicians.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To review the literature on diagnostic testing in syncope and provide recommendations for a comprehensive, cost-effective approach to establishing its cause.
  
  
  METHODS
  Studies were identified through a MEDLINE search (1980 to present) and a manual review of bibliographies of identified articles.
  
  
  METHODS
  Papers were eligible if they addressed diagnostic testing in syncope or near syncope and reported results for at least 10 patients.
  
  
  METHODS
  The usefulness of tests was assessed by calculating diagnostic yield: the number of patients with diagnostically positive test results divided by the number of patients tested or, in the case of monitoring studies, the sum of true-positive and true-negative test results divided by the number of patients tested.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Despite the absence of a diagnostic gold standard and the paucity of data from randomized trials, several points emerge. First, history, physical examination, and electrocardiography are the core of the syncope workup (combined diagnostic yield, 50%). Second, neurologic testing is rarely helpful unless additional neurologic signs or symptoms are present (diagnostic yield of electroencephalography, computed tomography, and Doppler ultrasonography, 2% to 6%). Third, patients in whom heart disease is known or suspected or those with exertional syncope are at higher risk for adverse outcomes and should have cardiac testing, including echocardiography, stress testing. Holter monitoring, or intracardiac electrophysiologic studies, alone or in combination (diagnostic yields, 5% to 35%). Fourth, syncope in the elderly often results from polypharmacy and abnormal physiologic responses to daily events. Fifth, long-term loop electrocardiography (diagnostic yield, 25% to 35%) and tilt testing (diagnostic yield < or = 60%) are most useful in patients with recurrent syncope in whom heart disease is not suspected. Sixth, psychiatric evaluation can detect mental disorders associated with syncope in up to 25% of cases. Seventh, hospitalization may be indicated for patients at high risk for cardiac syncope (those with an abnormal electrocardiogram, organic heart disease, chest pain, history of arrhythmia, age > 70 years) or with acute neurologic signs.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Many tests for syncope have a low diagnostic yield. A careful history, physical examination, and electrocardiography will provide a diagnosis or determine whether diagnostic testing is necessary in most patients.
authors.affiliation: University of Wisconsin School of Medicine, Department of Medicine, Madison 53792-2454, USA.
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Linzer
authors.forename: E H
authors.initials: EH
authors.lastname: Yang
authors.forename: N A
authors.initials: NA
authors.lastname: Estes
authors.forename: P
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Wang
authors.forename: V R
authors.initials: VR
authors.lastname: Vorperian
authors.forename: W N
authors.initials: WN
authors.lastname: Kapoor
mesh_terms: D000465:Algorithms; D003362:Cost-Benefit Analysis; D004562:Electrocardiography / Q000191:economics; D006801:Humans; D008487:Medical History Taking; D010808:Physical Examination / Q000191:economics; D012307:Risk Factors; D013575:Syncope / Q000209:etiology*