title: Determinants and mechanisms of enamel fluorosis.
abstract: Enamel fluorosis occurs when fluoride concentrations in or in the vicinity of the forming enamel are excessive during its pre-eruptive development. Fluoride concentrations in plasma, enamel and other tissues reflect the difference between intake and excretion, i.e. fluoride balance. In addition to the diet, modern sources of ingested fluoride include a variety of dental products, some of which have been identified as risk factors for fluorosis. Fluoride absorption is inversely related to dietary calcium which, at high concentrations, may cause net fluoride secretion into the gastrointestinal tract. The excretion of absorbed fluoride occurs almost exclusively via the kidneys, a process which is directly related to urinary pH. Thus, fluoride balance and tissue concentrations and the risk of fluorosis are increased by factors such as high protein diets, residence at high altitude, and certain metabolic and respiratory disorders that decrease pH. Factors that increase urinary pH and decrease the balance of fluoride include vegetarian diets, certain drugs and some other medical conditions. Although several other fluoride-induced effects might be involved in the aetiology of fluorosis, it now appears that inhibition of enzymatic degradation of amelogenins, which may delay their removal from the developing enamel and impair crystal growth, may be of critical importance. In addition to the effects of fluoride, disturbances in enamel formation that can be confused with fluorosis are caused by chronic acidosis and hypoxia independently of the level of fluoride exposure.
authors.affiliation: Department of Oral Biology, School of Dentistry, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta 30912-1129, USA.
authors.forename: G M
authors.initials: GM
authors.lastname: Whitford
mesh_terms: D000138:Acidosis / Q000150:complications / Q000378:metabolism; D000566:Amelogenesis / Q000187:drug effects; D053523:Amelogenin; D000595:Amino Acid Sequence; D000818:Animals; D002136:Calcium, Dietary / Q000009:adverse effects; D002648:Child; D002675:Child, Preschool; D003743:Dental Enamel / Q000187:drug effects; D003746:Dental Enamel Proteins / Q000378:metabolism; D004044:Dietary Proteins / Q000009:adverse effects; D005459:Fluorides / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000493:pharmacokinetics; D009050:Fluorosis, Dental / Q000097:blood / Q000209:etiology* / Q000378:metabolism* / Q000652:urine; D005919:Glomerular Filtration Rate; D006801:Humans; D006863:Hydrogen-Ion Concentration; D000860:Hypoxia / Q000150:complications; D008657:Metabolic Clearance Rate; D008969:Molecular Sequence Data; D011480:Protease Inhibitors / Q000378:metabolism; D051381:Rats; D012697:Serine Endopeptidases / Q000737:chemistry / Q000378:metabolism
chemical_list: D053523:Amelogenin; C507201:Amelx protein, rat; D002136:Calcium, Dietary; D003746:Dental Enamel Proteins; D004044:Dietary Proteins; D011480:Protease Inhibitors; D012697:Serine Endopeptidases; C101855:ameloprotease I; D005459:Fluorides