title: Opioid and benzodiazepine tolerance and dependence: application of theory to critical care practice.
abstract: Critical care clinicians frequently manage patient pain and agitation and promote ventilator stability through use of opioids and benzodiazepines. Often, doses of these drugs must be increased considerably over time as they lose their effectiveness-an indication of drug tolerance. Furthermore, patients can experience negative physiologic responses to withdrawal of these drugs-an indication of drug dependence. Withdrawal symptoms due to abrupt discontinuation of drug therapy can be profound and dangerous. It is important that clinicians understand the mechanisms of drug therapies and their potential negative sequelae. The purpose of this article is to present physiologic theories of opioid and benzodiazepine actions, as well as drug tolerance and dependence, as a basis of knowledge for clinical practice. A clinical scenario of an intensive care unit patient is presented, and a care plan is offered, to provide guidance to practitioners who care for patients experiencing the consequences of long-term opioid and benzodiazepine use.
authors.affiliation: University of California-San Francisco School of Nursing 94143-0610, USA.
authors.forename: K
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Puntillo
authors.forename: V
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Casella
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Reid
mesh_terms: D000700:Analgesics / Q000494:pharmacology; D001569:Benzodiazepines / Q000494:pharmacology; D003422:Critical Care; D004361:Drug Tolerance; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D006993:Hypnotics and Sedatives / Q000494:pharmacology; D009294:Narcotics / Q000494:pharmacology; D019966:Substance-Related Disorders
chemical_list: D000700:Analgesics; D006993:Hypnotics and Sedatives; D009294:Narcotics; D001569:Benzodiazepines