title: The raccoon as an animal model for upper limb neural prosthetics.
abstract: The raccoon was evaluated as an animal model for upper limb neural prosthetics. This animal was selected primarily because the functional use of its forelimb mimics in many ways the usage in humans and because of its optimal size and commercial availability. Eight cadaver and fresh specimen forearms were dissected. Important characteristics of the raccoon forearm were: 1) large muscles in the volar forearm, 2) large digits in the paw that appear more similar to humans than to other species such as cat or dog, 3) persistence of two median nerve cords into the forearm, 4) no separation of individual tendons of flexor digitorum superficialis and flexor digitorum profundus in the carpal tunnel, 5) a small thumb digit with little function and 6) a primary origin of flexor policis longus on the proximal ulna with a secondary origin on the radius. Four animals were anesthetized and responses of the forearm and paw to stimulation of the volar forearm muscles with percutaneous electrodes were evaluated. A pair of stimulating electrodes was placed in each of four muscles or muscle groups. Recording electrodes were placed in two muscles which showed the greatest separation of muscle movements to stimulation. Stimulation currents just above threshold produced discrete motion as well as recordable EMG M-waves. Incremental increases in stimulation current produced an increase in M-wave amplitude up to a maximal stimulating current. Torque recordings for pronation, wrist flexion and finger flexion showed graded and selective responses. These results including anatomical descriptions indicate both the limitations of this animal model and its potential use in the development of upper limb neural prosthetics. We conclude that the raccoon model may be superior to other nonprimate animal models such as the cat because of its extensive forearm and paw movements.
authors.affiliation: Rehabilitation Research and Development Center, Edward Hines, Jr. Department of Veterans Affairs Hospital, Hines, IL 60141, USA.
authors.forename: J S
authors.initials: JS
authors.lastname: Walter
authors.forename: P
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Griffith
authors.forename: V
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Scarpine
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Bidnar
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Dauzvardis
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Turner
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: McLane
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Sweeney
authors.forename: C J
authors.initials: CJ
authors.lastname: Robinson
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D004576:Electromyography; D005542:Forearm / Q000033:anatomy & histology / Q000294:innervation*; D009132:Muscles / Q000502:physiology; D009469:Neuromuscular Junction / Q000502:physiology*; D019736:Prostheses and Implants; D011821:Raccoons / Q000033:anatomy & histology / Q000502:physiology; D019415:Torque