title: The expression of pain in infants and toddlers: developmental changes in facial action.
abstract: Age-related changes in the facial expression of pain during the first 18 months of life have important implications for our understanding of pain and pain assessment. We examined facial reactions video recorded during routine immunization injections in 75 infants stratified into 2-, 4-, 6-, 12-, and 18-month age groups. Two facial coding systems differing in the amount of detail extracted were applied to the records. In addition, parents completed a brief questionnaire that assessed child temperament and provided background information. Parents' efforts to soothe the children also were described. While there were consistencies in facial displays over the age groups, there also were differences on both measures of facial activity, indicating systematic variation in the nature and severity of distress. The least pain was expressed by the 4-month age group. Temperament was not related to the degree of pain expressed. Systematic variations in parental soothing behaviour indicated accommodation to the age of the child. Reasons for the differing patterns of facial activity are examined, with attention paid to the development of inhibitory mechanisms and the role of negative emotions such as anger and anxiety.
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada. lilley@unixg.ubc.ca
authors.forename: C M
authors.initials: CM
authors.lastname: Lilley
authors.forename: K D
authors.initials: KD
authors.lastname: Craig
authors.forename: R E
authors.initials: RE
authors.lastname: Grunau
mesh_terms: D002657:Child Development; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D005149:Facial Expression; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007114:Immunization / Q000009:adverse effects*; D007223:Infant; D008297:Male; D010147:Pain Measurement / Q000379:methods*; D015203:Reproducibility of Results; D014741:Video Recording