title: The ethics of scientific research: an analysis of focus groups of scientists and institutional representatives.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Little is known about scientists' views on normative research ethics and how these compare with the views of the institutional representatives (IRs) involved in matters of scientific conduct. We qualitatively evaluated scientist and IR perceptions of the norms of science, ethical violations and their harms, factors contributing to violations, and approaches to improve scientific conduct.
  
  
  METHODS
  Focus groups were conducted with National Science Foundation investigators and with IRs. Themes were extracted from observation, notes, and transcripts. Consensus and contrasts within and between groups were described.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Scientists described a rich set of norms including honesty, integrity, service, sharing, openness, mentoring, and meticulous work habits. Institutional representatives focused on good citizenship and abiding by administrative rules. Both groups listed similar ethical violations, though scientists felt that severe violations were rare, that science was self-correcting, and that the greatest harm from misconduct disclosure was the loss of public trust and funding. Institutional representatives called for increased and less confidential misconduct investigations. Reporting misconduct was strongly supported by IRs but rejected by scientists. Both scientists and IRs believed that formal research ethics education was needed for trainees.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Scientists in these focus groups upheld a complex set of norms that mirror prior codes of science and exceed national misconduct rules. The sharply contrasting views of scientists and IRs concerning responsibility to report misconduct, the utility of misconduct investigation, and penalties for misconduct highlight areas where open discussion and constructive resolution are needed to formulate a functional mechanism to enhance the ethical conduct of science.
authors.affiliation: Department of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles 90095-1736, USA.
authors.forename: N S
authors.initials: NS
authors.lastname: Wenger
authors.forename: S G
authors.initials: SG
authors.lastname: Korenman
authors.forename: R
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Berk
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Berry
mesh_terms: D035843:Biomedical Research; D030881:Disclosure; D004989:Ethics; D004991:Ethics, Institutional; D004995:Ethics, Professional; D032984:Ethics, Research; D006801:Humans; D033181:Information Dissemination; D012106:Research / Q000193:education / Q000592:standards*; D015871:Scientific Misconduct; D012941:Social Responsibility; D012945:Social Values; D035642:Whistleblowing