title: Nasopharyngeal colonization in Costa Rican children during the first year of life.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The establishment of the nasopharyngeal flora was followed in Costa Rican children from birth to 1 year of age.
  
  
  METHODS
  Nasopharyngeal cultures were obtained at 1 (n = 413), 3 (n = 393), 6 (n = 376) and 12 months (n = 356) of age from children representative of the population in the Puriscal district. Weekly cultures were obtained from a subcohort of these children (n = 101). Mother-infant diads (n = 95) and preschool children (n = 208) attending day-care centers were also studied.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The estimated proportion of colonized children in the population differed markedly depending on the frequency of culture. Quarterly cultures showed a slow increase in carrier rates from 3.9% for Haemophilus influenzae, 3.1% for Streptococcus pneumoniae and 6.5% for Moraxella catarrhalis at 1 month of age to 10.1% carrying H. influenzae and 19.4% carrying S. pneumoniae by the end of the first year. By quarterly culture the proportion of children colonized at least once was 36% for S. pneumoniae, 26% for H. influenzae and 28% for M. catarrhalis. In contrast weekly sampling showed that 95 to 100% of the children were colonized at least once during the first year of life with H. influenzae, S. pneumoniae or M. catarrhalis. Nasopharyngeal carriage of H. influenzae, S. pneumoniae and M. catarrhalis was low in the mothers, and very few mother-infant pairs carried identical bacteria at the same time. In contrast carrier rates were high in the siblings attending day care (H. influenzae 27.9%, S. pneumoniae 39.4%, both organisms 26.6%). Infants with siblings had significantly higher bacterial carriage at all ages than infants without siblings.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Quarterly nasopharyngeal cultures showed that Costa Rican infants acquire their nasopharyngeal flora at a rate comparable with that for infants in developed countries and that siblings are an important source of the bacteria. Weekly samplings showed that virtually all children were colonized at least once during the first year of life.
authors.affiliation: Ministry of Health, Infection-Nutrition Section, University of Costa Rica, San Pedro, San Jose, Costa Rica.
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Vives
authors.forename: M E
authors.initials: ME
authors.lastname: Garcia
authors.forename: P
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Saenz
authors.forename: M A
authors.initials: MA
authors.lastname: Mora
authors.forename: L
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Mata
authors.forename: H
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Sabharwal
authors.forename: C
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Svanborg
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D001419:Bacteria / Q000254:growth & development*; D001424:Bacterial Infections / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000517:prevention & control; D002353:Carrier State / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000382:microbiology* / Q000517:prevention & control; D016009:Chi-Square Distribution; D002656:Child Day Care Centers / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D002675:Child, Preschool; D015331:Cohort Studies; D015169:Colony Count, Microbial; D003364:Costa Rica / Q000453:epidemiology; D017753:Ecosystem; D005190:Family; D005260:Female; D005500:Follow-Up Studies; D006801:Humans; D007223:Infant; D007231:Infant, Newborn; D008297:Male; D009305:Nasopharynx / Q000382:microbiology*; D012016:Reference Values