title: Maternal smoking during pregnancy, urine cotinine concentrations, and birth outcomes. A prospective cohort study.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Most studies of the reproductive consequences of cigarette smoking base exposure on self-reported smoking habits. This study examines the relationship of birth outcomes to the timing and intensity of maternal active and passive smoking estimated both from self-reports and from cotinine concentration in maternal urine during early, middle, and late gestation.
  
  
  METHODS
  This cohort study included 740 white and Hispanic women who obtained antenatal care at the East Boston Neighborhood Health Center between 1986 and 1992. At each antenatal visit, information on maternal active and passive smoking was obtained by a detailed questionnaire, and by measurement of urine cotinine concentrations. Infant birth outcomes were obtained from hospital records. Multiple linear regression was used to evaluate antenatal smoking variables on birth outcomes, with adjustment for maternal demographic characteristics, reproductive history, alcohol use, maternal weight and height, and infant gender.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The percentage of mothers who ever smoked cigarettes during pregnancy was 55.5% for white and 10.2% for Hispanic women. A significant inverse exposure-response relationship between cotinine concentration in maternal urine and infant size at birth was demonstrated. However, the relationship was less clear between maternal self-reported smoking status and these outcomes. For the entire gestation, a 1000 ng increase in mean urine cotinine concentration was associated with a 59 +/- 9 g reduction in birthweight, a 0.25 +/- 0.05 cm reduction in length, and a 0.12 +/- 0.03 cm reduction in head circumference, respectively. For maternal passive smoking, the much smaller magnitude of effect precludes firm conclusions.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  These data suggest that preventing and reducing active maternal smoking during pregnancy may have a beneficial impact on infant size at birth.
authors.affiliation: Department of Pediatrics, Boston University School of Medicine, MA, USA.
authors.forename: X
authors.initials: X
authors.lastname: Wang
authors.forename: I B
authors.initials: IB
authors.lastname: Tager
authors.forename: H
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Van Vunakis
authors.forename: F E
authors.initials: FE
authors.lastname: Speizer
authors.forename: J P
authors.initials: JP
authors.lastname: Hanrahan
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D001724:Birth Weight; D002508:Cephalometry; D015331:Cohort Studies; D003367:Cotinine / Q000378:metabolism / Q000652:urine*; D004784:Environmental Monitoring; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007231:Infant, Newborn; D016014:Linear Models; D018811:Maternal Exposure; D011247:Pregnancy; D011256:Pregnancy Outcome; D011297:Prenatal Exposure Delayed Effects; D011446:Prospective Studies; D012307:Risk Factors; D012907:Smoking / Q000009:adverse effects*
chemical_list: D003367:Cotinine