title: The early history of congenital heart surgery: closed heart operations.
abstract: The history of cardiovascular surgery before the development of open heart techniques is presented. Emphasis is placed on the creativeness and boldness of the visionary pioneers whose skills and determination led to the modern era of the routine surgical treatment of heart disease.
authors.affiliation: Department of Surgery, Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Milton S. Hershey Medical Center, Hershey 17033, USA.
authors.forename: J A
authors.initials: JA
authors.lastname: Waldhausen
mesh_terms: D006348:Cardiac Surgical Procedures / Q000266:history*; D006330:Heart Defects, Congenital / Q000266:history* / Q000601:surgery; D049672:History, 19th Century; D049673:History, 20th Century; D006801:Humans