Does postmenopausal estrogen administration increase the risk of breast cancer? Contributions of animal, biochemical, and clinical investigative studies to a resolution of the controversy.
Despite nearly six decades of epidemiological studies, meta-analyses, and reviews, there is still considerable controversy in the literature about the question, does postmenopausal estrogen administration increase the risk of breast cancer? In an effort to resolve the controversy, a number of animal, biochemical, and clinical investigative studies in this field have been reviewed. The following summary formulation is proposed: 1. Administration of estrogen is inherently capable of promoting the growth of breast cancer, and therefore of increasing the incidence of clinical breast cancer. 2. Human response to estrogen is like that of the low-cancer-incidence strains of mice studied by Lacassagne, in that large doses and prolonged administration are required to induce clinical breast cancer. 3. The blood levels of estradiol produced by the usual doses of postmenopausal estrogen are relatively low, equivalent to those of the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle. These levels may be near the threshold for producing breast-cancer-promoting effects; therefore, the tumor response will vary greatly in different populations, depending on genetic susceptibility factors: a. The prevalence of a family history of premenopausal breast cancer in a first-degree relative. b. The prevalence of abnormal BRCA1, BRCA2, and p53 genes. c. The prevalence of increased 16 alpha-hydroxylation of estradiol. d. The prevalence of smokers who are slow acetylators. 4. Consumption of alcohol (5 grams or more daily) along with the postmenopausal estrogen administration results in elevation of blood estradiol levels to values equivalent to those of the periovulatory peak of the menstrual cycle, which may be well above the threshold for producing breast-cancer-promoting effects in all women. The risk for cancer will therefore be uniformly increased in women who use alcohol and take estrogen. 5. Increased risk of breast cancer from postmenopausal estrogen administration can be eliminated by taking two synergistic steps: a. Eliminating alcohol consumption, or at least keeping it well below an average of 5 grams daily (equivalent to 2/3 ounce of whiskey or 3 ounces of wine). b. Diminishing the capacity to 16 alpha-hydroxylate estradiol, either through pharmacological agents such as indole-3-carbinol or through increased consumption of cruciferous vegetables. It is concluded that despite the inherent ability of postmenopausal estrogen therapy to increase the risk of breast cancer in theory, the increased risk can be eliminated in practice by minimizing or eliminating consumption of alcohol and ingesting pharmacological or dietary agents that reduce the 16 alpha-hydroxylation of estradiol.
Zumoff
B
B
Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Medical Center, New York, New York 10003, USA.
D000428:Alcohol Drinking; D000818:Animals; D001189:Aryl Hydrocarbon Hydroxylases; D001943:Breast Neoplasms / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000209:etiology / Q000235:genetics; D065727:Cytochrome P-450 CYP2C8; D065729:Cytochrome P-450 CYP2C9; D015914:Estrogen Replacement Therapy / Q000009:adverse effects*; D004967:Estrogens / Q000009:adverse effects* / Q000633:toxicity; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D015994:Incidence; D051379:Mice; D009374:Neoplasms, Experimental / Q000139:chemically induced; D017698:Postmenopause; D012307:Risk Factors; D012907:Smoking; D039181:Steroid 16-alpha-Hydroxylase
D004967:Estrogens; C450260:CYP2C9 protein, human; D065729:Cytochrome P-450 CYP2C9; D001189:Aryl Hydrocarbon Hydroxylases; C450259:CYP2C8 protein, human; D065727:Cytochrome P-450 CYP2C8; D039181:Steroid 16-alpha-Hydroxylase