title: Item bias in the CAGE screening test for alcohol use disorders.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To explore potential item bias in the CAGE questions (mnemonic for cut-down, annoyed, guilty, and eye-opener) when used to screen for alcohol use disorders in primary care patients.
  
  
  METHODS
  Cross-sectional study, conducted in a university-based, family practice clinic, with the presence of an alcohol use disorder determined by structured diagnostic interview using the Alcohol Use Disorder and Associated Disabilities Interview Schedule.
  
  
  METHODS
  A probability sample of 1,333 adult primary care patients, with oversampling of female and minority (African-American and Mexican-American) patients.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Unadjusted analyses showed marked differences in the sensitivity and specificity of each CAGE question against a lifetime alcohol use disorder, across patient subgroups. Women, Mexican-American patients, and patients with annual incomes above $40,000 were consistently less likely to endorse each CAGE question "yes," after adjusting for the presence of an alcohol use disorder and pattern of alcohol consumption. In results from logistic regression analyses predicting an alcohol use disorder, cut-down was the only question retained in models for each of the subgroups. The guilty question did not contribute to the prediction of an alcohol use disorder; annoyed and eye-opener were inconsistent predictors.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Despite its many advantages, the CAGE questionnaire is an inconsistent indicator of alcohol use disorders when used with male and female primary care patients of varying racial and ethnic backgrounds. Gender and cultural differences in the consequences of drinking and perceptions of problem alcohol use may explain these effects. These biases suggest the CAGE is a poor "rule-out" screening test. Brief and unbiased screens for alcohol use disorders in primary care patients are needed.
authors.affiliation: Department of Family Medicine, The University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, 77555-1123, USA.
authors.forename: R J
authors.initials: RJ
authors.lastname: Volk
authors.forename: S B
authors.initials: SB
authors.lastname: Cantor
authors.forename: J R
authors.initials: JR
authors.lastname: Steinbauer
authors.forename: A R
authors.initials: AR
authors.lastname: Cass
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D001741:Black or African American; D019973:Alcohol-Related Disorders / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000517:prevention & control; D015982:Bias; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D016015:Logistic Models; D008297:Male; D008403:Mass Screening; D017058:Mexican Americans; D016017:Odds Ratio; D015203:Reproducibility of Results; D012959:Socioeconomic Factors; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires