title: Frostbite: review and current concepts.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  A literature review was conducted to analyze developments in the epidemiology, pathogenesis, treatment, and prevention of frostbite injury. Increased participation in outdoor activities, as well as the epidemic of homelessness, makes knowledge of the treatment of frostbite crucial for physicians in both rural and urban areas.
  
  
  METHODS
  A literature search, using the key words "frostbite" and "cold," was done using MEDLINE and Index Medicus. This search focused on the epidemiology, pathogenesis, treatment, and prevention of frostbite.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Research done during the past 15 years has clarified the pathogenesis of frostbite injury and led to a better understanding of how to limit tissue loss. The etiology of frostbite is commonly related to alcohol use, psychiatric illness, or motor vehicle problems. The pathogenesis is linked to tissue freezing, hypoxia, and the release of inflammatory mediators. The initial clinical manifestations of frostbite injury are similar for superficial and deep tissue damage, so early treatment is identical for all injuries. Optimum therapy is based on the rapid reversal of tissue freezing by rewarming in 104-108 degrees F water and the institution of oral and topical antiprostaglandin therapy to limit the release of inflammatory mediators.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Rapid triage and treatment of frostbite can lead to dramatic improvements in outcome and prognosis. Increased awareness of antiprostaglandin therapy and preventive measures is crucial for physicians in diverse practice environments.
authors.affiliation: Department of Family Practice, David Grant Medical Center, Travis Air Force Base, CA 94535, USA.
authors.forename: B V
authors.initials: BV
authors.lastname: Reamy
mesh_terms: D003080:Cold Temperature / Q000009:adverse effects*; D005627:Frostbite / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000209:etiology / Q000628:therapy; D006801:Humans; D015994:Incidence; D008523:MEDLARS; D016239:MEDLINE; D011448:Prostaglandin Antagonists / Q000627:therapeutic use; D017694:Rewarming; D012307:Risk Factors
chemical_list: D011448:Prostaglandin Antagonists