title: Insulin and coronary artery disease: is syndrome X the unifying hypothesis?
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To review data supporting the hypothesis that syndrome X plays a major role in the pathogenesis of coronary artery disease (CAD), and the effects of lifestyle factors and pharmacologic interventions on insulin, other metabolic parameters, and outcomes.
  
  
  METHODS
  MEDLINE (January 1966-August 1997) and Current Contents database searches identified applicable English-language experimental trials, epidemiologic studies, reviews, and editorials.
  
  
  METHODS
  Studies that were included addressed the role of insulin resistance and hyperinsulinemia in the pathogenesis of CAD or the effects of lifestyle factors and pharmacologic interventions on metabolic parameters and outcomes.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The main characteristics of syndrome X are hyperinsulinemia and insulin resistance. These result in secondary syndrome X features, including hyperglycemia, increased very-low-density lipoprotein concentrations, decreased high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and hypertension. Insulin resistance is worsened by obesity, and insulin has been shown to contribute to the development of hypertension. Other studies demonstrate that smoking adversely affects glucose and insulin concentrations. Animal studies have linked hyperinsulinemia and atherogenesis. These animal data have been confirmed by several large prospective and population studies that have identified associations between hyperinsulinemia and CAD.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Strong evidence links insulin resistance and hyperinsulinemia to CAD. Lifestyle modifications play an important role in decreasing cardiovascular risk, and clinicians should strongly encourage such changes. Clinicians must also carefully consider the effects of antihypertensive, antihyperglycemic, and antidyslipidemic agents on patients' metabolic profiles when choosing appropriate therapeutic regimens. However, outcome data on many potentially beneficial agents, including calcium antagonists, alpha 1-adrenergic antagonists, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, metformin, acarbose, and troglitazone, are not yet available.
authors.affiliation: Department of Pharmacy Practice, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston 29425, USA.
authors.forename: G M
authors.initials: GM
authors.lastname: Baillie
authors.forename: J T
authors.initials: JT
authors.lastname: Sherer
authors.forename: C W
authors.initials: CW
authors.lastname: Weart
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D003327:Coronary Disease / Q000209:etiology* / Q000503:physiopathology*; D006801:Humans; D006946:Hyperinsulinism / Q000150:complications* / Q000503:physiopathology; D007333:Insulin Resistance