title: Effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of letters, automated telephone messages, or both for underimmunized children in a health maintenance organization.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Immunization rates have improved in the United States, but are still far from the national 90% goal for the year 2000. There is scant evidence about the effectiveness and costs of automated telephone messages to improve immunization rates among privately insured children.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To evaluate the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of sending letters, automated telephone messages, or both to families of underimmunized 20-month-olds in a health maintenance organization (HMO).
  
  
  METHODS
  In this randomized trial, underimmunized 20-month-olds identified by the HMO's computerized immunization tracking system were assigned to one of four interventions: 1) an automated telephone message alone; 2) a letter alone; 3) an automated telephone message followed by a letter 1 week later; and 4) a letter followed by an automated telephone message 1 week later. The primary outcome was receipt of any needed immunization by 24 months of age. Decision analysis was used to evaluate the projected cost-effectiveness of the alternative strategies.
  
  
  RESULTS
  A total of 648 children were randomized. A letter followed by a telephone message (58% immunized) was significantly better than either a letter alone (44% immunized) or a telephone message alone (44% immunized). A telephone message followed by a letter (53% immunized) also was more effective than either alone, although the differences were not statistically significant. Among a similar comparison group that received no systematic intervention, 36% were immunized. The estimated cost per child immunized was $7.00 using letters followed by automated telephone messages, $9.80 using automated telephone messages alone, and $10.50 using letters alone. Under alternative cost assumptions for automated telephone messages and mailed messages, the cost per child immunized ranged from $2.20 to $6.50.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  For underimmunized 20-month-olds in this HMO setting, letters followed by automated telephone messages were more effective and cost-effective than either message alone. The cost-effectiveness of automated telephone messages and letters may vary widely depending on the setting, and choices among strategies should be tailored to the populations being served.
authors.affiliation: Division of Research, Permanente Medical Group, Oakland, CA 94611, USA.
authors.forename: T A
authors.initials: TA
authors.lastname: Lieu
authors.forename: A M
authors.initials: AM
authors.lastname: Capra
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Makol
authors.forename: S B
authors.initials: SB
authors.lastname: Black
authors.forename: H R
authors.initials: HR
authors.lastname: Shinefield
mesh_terms: D003362:Cost-Benefit Analysis; D005260:Female; D006279:Health Maintenance Organizations; D006801:Humans; D007114:Immunization / Q000191:economics / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D017589:Immunization Programs / Q000191:economics / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D007223:Infant; D007256:Information Systems; D008297:Male; D010349:Patient Compliance; D011177:Postal Service / Q000191:economics; D017010:Reminder Systems / Q000191:economics*; D013689:Telephone / Q000191:economics*